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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 937 records · Page 52
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1977

Impacts and Benefits of a Satellite Power System on the Electric Utility Industry

The purpose of this limited study was to investigate six specific issues associated with interfacing a Satellite Power System (5 GW) with large (by present standards) terrestrial power pools to a depth sufficient to determine if certain interface problems and/or benefits exist and what future studies of these problems are required. The issues investigated are as follows: (1) Stability of Power Pools Containing a 5 GWe SPS; (2) Extra Reserve Margin Required to Maintain the Reliability of Power Pools Containing a 5 GWe SPS; (3) Use of the SPS in Load Following Service (i.e. in two independent pools whose times of peak demand differ by three hours); (4) Ownership of the SPS and its effect on SPS Usage and Utility Costs; (5) Utility Sharing of SPS related RD and D Costs; (6) Utility Liability for SPS Related Hazards.

Winer, B. M.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Examination of the physical processes associated with the keyhole region of variable polarity plasma arc welds in aluminum alloy 2219

The morphology and properties of the Variable Polarity Plasma Arc (VPPA) weld composite zone are intimately related to the physical processes associated with the keyhole. This study examined the effects of oxide, halide, and sulfate additions to the weld plate on the keyhole and the weld pool. Changes in both the arc plasma character and the bead morphology were correlated to the chemical environment of the weld. Pool behavior was observed by adding flow markers to actual VPPA welds. A low temperature analog to the welding process was developed. The results of the study indicate that oxygen, even at low partial pressures, can disrupt the stable keyhole and weld pool. The results also indicate that the Marangoni surface tension driven flows dominate the weld pool over the range of welding currents studied.

Walsh, Daniel W.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Response of vegetation indices to changes in three measures of leaf water stress

The responses of vegetation indices to changes in water stress were evaluated in two separate laboratory experiments. In one experiment the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the near-IR to red ratio (near-IR/red), the Infrared Index (II), and the Moisture Stress Index (MSI) were more highly correlated to leaf water potential in lodgepole pine branches than were the Leaf Water Content Index (LWCI), the mid-IR ratio (Mid-IR), or any of the single Thematic Mapper (TM) bands. In the other experiment, these six indices and the TM Tasseled Cap brightness, greenness, and wetness indices responded to changes in leaf relative water content (RWC) differently than they responded to changes in leaf water content (WC) of three plant species, and the responses were dependent on how experimental replicates were pooled. With no pooling, the LWCI was the most highly correlated index to both RWC and WC among replications, followed by the II, MSI, and wetness. Only the LWCI was highly correlated to RWC and WC when replications were pooled within species. With among species pooling the LWCI was the only index highly correlated with RWC, while the II, MSI, Mid-IR, and wetness were most highly correlated with WC.

Cohen, Warren B.↗
NASA NTRS1994

A comparison between general circulation model simulations using two sea surface temperature datasets for January 1979

Simulations with the UCLA atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) using two different global sea surface temperature (SST) datasets for January 1979 are compared. One of these datasets is based on Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (COADS) (SSTs) at locations where there are ship reports, and climatology elsewhere; the other is derived from measurements by instruments onboard NOAA satellites. In the former dataset (COADS SST), data are concentrated along shipping routes in the Northern Hemisphere; in the latter dataset High Resolution Infrared Sounder (HIRS SST), data cover the global domain. Ensembles of five 30-day mean fields are obtained from integrations performed in the perpetual-January mode. The results are presented as anomalies, that is, departures of each ensemble mean from that produced in a control simulation with climatological SSTs. Large differences are found between the anomalies obtained using COADS and HIRS SSTs, even in the Northern Hemisphere where the datasets are most similar to each other. The internal variability of the circulation in the control simulation and the simulated atmospheric response to anomalous forcings appear to be linked in that the pattern of geopotential height anomalies obtained using COADS SSTs resembles the first empirical orthogonal function (EOF 1) in the control simulation. The corresponding pattern obtained using HIRS SSTs is substantially different and somewhat resembles EOF 2 in the sector from central North America to central Asia. To gain insight into the reasons for these results, three additional simulations are carried out with SST anomalies confined to regions where COADS SSTs are substantially warmer than HIRS SSTs. The regions correspond to warm pools in the northwest and northeast Pacific, and the northwest Atlantic. These warm pools tend to produce positive geopotential height anomalies in the northeastern part of the corresponding oceans. Both warm pools in the Pacific produce large-scale circulation anomalies with a pattern that resembles that obtained using COADS SSTs as well as EOF 1 of the control simulation; the warm pool in the Atlantic does not. These results suggest that the differences obtained with COADS SSTs and HIRS SSTs are mostly due to the differences in the datasets over the northern Pacific. There was a blocking episode near Greenland in late January 1979. Both simulations with warm SST anomalies over the northwest and northeast Pacific show a tendency toward increased incidence of North Atlantic blocking; the simulation with warm SST anomalies over the northwest Atlantic shows a tendency toward decreased incidence. These results suggest that features in both SST datasets that do not have a counterpart in the other dataset contribute signficantly to the differences between the simulated and observed fields. The results of this study imply that uncertainties in current SST distributions for the world oceans can be as important as the SST anomalies themselves in terms of their impact on the atmospheric circulation. Caution should be exercised, therefore, when linking anomalous circulation and SST patterns, especially in long-range prediction.

Ose, Tomoaki↗
NASA NTRS1998

An Assessment of Molten Metal Detachment Hazards for Electron Beam Welding in the Space Environment: Analysis and Test Results

Conditions under which molten metal detachments might occur in a space welding environment are analyzed. A weld pool detachment parameter specifying conditions for pool detachment by impact is derived and corroborated by experimental evidence. Impact detachment for the pool is unlikely. Impact detachment for a drop of metal on the end of the weld wire may be possible under extreme conditions. Other potential causes of molten metal detachment considered, vaporization pressure forces and wire flickout from the pool, did not appear to present significant detachment threats.

Nunes, A. C., Jr.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Flame Spread Across Liquids: Experimental Results

The goal of our research on flame spread across a pool of liquid fuel is the quantitative identification of the mechanisms that control the rate and nature of flame spread when the initial temperature of the liquid pool is below the fuel's flash point temperature. Besides numerous experiments in drop towers and 1 g laboratories, we have flown five microgravity (mu-g) experiments on sounding rockets. As described in earlier papers, the first three flights examined the effect of forced opposed airflow over a 2.5 cm deep x 2 cm wide x 30 cm long pool of 1-butanol in mu-g. It was found that the flame spread is much slower and steadier than in 1 g where flame spread has a pulsating character. It was speculated that the flame spread in mu-g resembled the character of pseudo-uniform spread in 1 g; Ito et al later confirmed this conclusively in 1 g experiments. Much of the mu-g flame is also farther from the surface, dimmer, and with less soot, when compared to the 1 g flame. Three-dimensional liquid-phase flow patterns that control the liquid preheating were discovered in both 1 g and mu-g. Our numerical model, restricted to two dimensions, had predicted faster, pulsating flame spread in mu-g for opposed airflow. In examining the differences in the dimensionality of the model and experiment, it was noted that the experiment allowed gas expansion in the lateral direction (across the width of the pool), for which the model could not account. Such lateral expansion could reduce the expansion in the forward and upward directions. Because only these latter directions could be modeled, it was decided to artificially reduce the gas thermal expansion in the predictions. When this was done, satisfactory agreement could be obtained between the predicted and observed spread rates and the steadiness of the spread in microgravity. In 1 g, however, the predicted flame spread character also changed to pseudo-uniform, which disagreed with our 1 g experiments where the spread is pulsating. It was then speculated that gas-phase buoyant flow might oppose the lateral gas expansion, so that the 1 g experiments retained their pulsating flame spread character. If this speculation was valid, a difference in lateral gas expansion should be observable when comparing 1 g and mu-g experiments. Specifically, it was anticipated that greater flow divergence caused by lateral expansion would be measured in mu-g in the absence of a buoyant flow directed towards the flame.

Ross, H. D.↗
NASA NTRS1999

ARC and Melting Efficiency of Plasma ARC Welds

A series of partial penetration Variable Polarity Plasma Arc welds were made at equal power but various combinations of current and voltage on 2219 Aluminum. Arc efficiency was measured calorimetrically and ranged between 48% and 66% for the conditions of the welds. Arc efficiency depends in different ways on voltage and current. The voltage effect dominates. Raising voltage while reducing current increases arc efficiency. Longer, higher voltage arcs are thought to transfer a greater portion of arc power to the workpiece through shield gas convection. Melting efficiency depends upon weld pool shape as well as arc efficiency. Increased current increases the melting efficiency as it increases the depth to width ratio of the weld pool. Increased plasma gas flow does the same thing. Higher currents are thought to raise arc pressure and depress liquid at the bottom of the weld pool. More arc power then transfers to the workpiece through increasing plasma gas convection. If the power is held constant, the reduced voltage lowers the arc efficiency, while the pool shape change increases the melting efficiency,

McClure, J. C.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Responses of Precipitation and Hydrologic Processes to Tropical SST

The goal of the research is to identify the mechanisms in the response of tropical precipitation and atmospheric hydrologic cycle to sea surface temperature (SST) variability at seasonal-to-interannual time scales, and to utilize the knowledge for better understanding of climate feedback processes relevant to global change. As a first step to achieve the goal, we characterize the inter-relationship among convective/stratiform rain, ice/water clouds water vapor, and SST using TRMM satellite data and a cloud-resolving model. We examined the daily hydrologic variables [column water vapor (PW), cloud liquid water (CW), rainfall rates (RR)] as a function of SST using high-resolution data (0.25 x 0.25, daily) derived from TRMM satellite measurements. Comparing the winter of 97/98 (El Nino condition) against the winter of 99/00 (La Nina condition), area-mean values of all four hydrologic variables in cloudy areas within the tropical Pacific are higher in the El Nino winter than in the La Nina winter. This is consistent with previous observational analyses and SST warming experiments (idealized or ENSO-like) that showed the interaction between hydrologic cyclic and radiation at the seasonal to interannual time scales leads to intensified tropical circulation and hydrologic cycle. However, there is evidence that the enhanced hydrologic cycle over the warm pool is accompanied by an expansion of radiatively -driven subsidence in response to a stronger SST gradient between warm pool and surrounding cold pool. The expanding subsidence effectively reduces cloud amounts over the warm pool. Our analysis of daily variability further indicates a more vigorous water cycle characterized by higher PW, CW, and RR in response to overall warming. This is expected from the Clausius Clapeyron relation as a thermodynamic response to warming. However cloudy areas decrease in response to overall warming. This may be due to factors that are fundamentally different. One possibility is that in a warmer climate, there may be alteration in the microphysical processes in clouds, e.g., increased coalescence of cloud size droplets and increased entrainment of dry air from above due to the invigorated convective motions in response to overall warming. As a result, cloud amounts are less. Another interpretation is that, in colder air masses, more ice particles will be produced and, because of their lower densities, are less likely to precipitate, hence the higher cloud amount. This suggests that, when averaged over a sufficiently large area covering both the rising and sinking branches of the tropical circulation, there maybe an increase in the precipitation efficiency in stratiform clouds, in conjunction with increased subsidence in an enhanced water cycle. This is supported by the residence time at different rainrates.

Sui, C.-H.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Liquid Fuels: Pyrolytic Degradation and Fire Spread Behavior as Influenced by Buoyancy

This work is being conducted by the Combustion and Emission Control Lab in the Engineering Department at Clark Atlanta University under NASA Grant No. NCC3-707. The work aims at providing data to supplement the ongoing NASA research activities on fire spread across liquid pools by providing flow visualization and velocity measurements especially in the gas phase and gas-liquid interface. The fabrication, installation, and testing were completed during this reporting period. The system shakedown and detailed quantitative measurements with High Speed Video and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) systems using butanol as fuel were performed. New and interesting results, not previously reported in the literature, were obtained from the experiments using a modified NASA tray and butanol as fuel. Three distinct flame spread regimes, as previously reported, were observed. These were the pseudo-uniform regime below 20 C, the pulsating regime between 22 and 30 C and the uniform regime above about 31 C. In the pulsating regime the jump velocity appeared to be independent of the pool temperature. However, the retreat velocity between jumps appeared to depend on the initial pool temperature. The flame retreated before surging forwards with increasing brightness. Previous literature reported this phenomenon only under microgravity conditions. However, we observed such behavior in our normal gravity experiments. Mini-pulsations behind the flame front were also observed. Two or three of these pulsations were observed within a single flame front pulsating time period. The velocity vector maps of the gas and liquid phases ahead, during, and behind the flame front were characterized. At least one recirculation cell was observed right below the flame front.The size of the liquid phase vortex (recirculation cell) below the flame front appeared to decrease with increasing initial pool temperature. The experiments also showed how multiple vortices developed in the liquid phase. A large recirculation cell, which generally spins counterclockwise as the flame spread from right to left, was observed ahead of and near the flame front in the gas phase. Detailed quantitative measurements will be undertaken with the LDV and PIV systems using the modified NASA tray and propanol.

Yeboah, Yaw D.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Black Carbon in Estuarine (Coastal) High-molecular-weight Dissolved Organic Matter

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the ocean constitutes one of the largest pools of organic carbon in the biosphere, yet much of its composition is uncharacterized. Observations of black carbon (BC) particles (by-products of fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning) in the atmosphere, ice, rivers, soils and marine sediments suggest that this material is ubiquitous, yet the contribution of BC to the ocean s DOM pool remains unknown. Analysis of high-molecular-weight DOM isolated from surface waters of two estuaries in the northwest Atlantic Ocean finds that BC is a significant component of DOM, suggesting that river-estuary systems are important exporters of BC to the ocean through DOM. We show that BC comprises 4-7% of the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) at coastal ocean sites, which supports the hypothesis that the DOC pool is the intermediate reservoir in which BC ages prior to sedimentary deposition. Flux calculations suggest that BC could be as important as vascular plant-derived lignin in terms of carbon inputs to the ocean. Production of BC sequesters fossil fuel- and biomass-derived carbon into a refractory carbon pool. Hence, BC may represent a significant sink for carbon to the ocean.

Mannino, Antonio↗
NASA NTRS2005

Intelligent Information Fusion in the Aviation Domain: A Semantic-Web based Approach

Information fusion from multiple sources is a critical requirement for System Wide Information Management in the National Airspace (NAS). NASA and the FAA envision creating an "integrated pool" of information originally coming from different sources, which users, intelligent agents and NAS decision support tools can tap into. In this paper we present the results of our initial investigations into the requirements and prototype development of such an integrated information pool for the NAS. We have attempted to ascertain key requirements for such an integrated pool based on a survey of DSS tools that will benefit from this integrated pool. We then advocate key technologies from computer science research areas such as the semantic web, information integration, and intelligent agents that we believe are well suited to achieving the envisioned system wide information management capabilities.

Ashish, Naveen↗
NASA NTRS2003

Multiphase flow and phase change in microgravity: Fundamental research and strategic research for exploration of space

NASA is preparing to undertake science-driven exploration missions. The NASA Exploration Team's vision is a cascade of stepping stones. The stepping-stone will build the technical capabilities needed for each step with multi-use technologies and capabilities. An Agency-wide technology investment and development program is necessary to implement the vision. The NASA Exploration Team has identified a number of areas where significant advances are needed to overcome all engineering and medical barriers to the expansion of human space exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. Closed-loop life support systems and advanced propulsion and power technologies are among the areas requiring significant advances from the current state-of-the-art. Studies conducted by the National Academy of Science's National Research Council and Workshops organized by NASA have shown that multiphase flow and phase change play a crucial role in many of these advanced technology concepts. Lack of understanding of multiphase flow, phase change, and interfacial phenomena in the microgravity environment has been a major hurdle. An understanding of multiphase flow and phase change in microgravity is, therefore, critical to advancing many technologies needed. Recognizing this, the Office of Biological and Physical Research (OBPR) has initiated a strategic research thrust to augment the ongoing fundamental research in fluid physics and transport phenomena discipline with research especially aimed at understanding key multiphase flow related issues in propulsion, power, thermal control, and closed-loop advanced life support systems. A plan for integrated theoretical and experimental research that has the highest probability of providing data, predictive tools, and models needed by the systems developers to incorporate highly promising multiphase-based technologies is currently in preparation. This plan is being developed with inputs from scientific community, NASA mission planners and industry personnel. The fundamental research in multiphase flow and phase change in microgravity is aimed at developing better mechanistic understanding of pool boiling and ascertaining the effects of gravity on heat transfer and the critical heat flux. Space flight experiments conducted in space have shown that nucleate pool boiling can be sustained under certain conditions in the microgravity environment. New space flight experiments are being developed to provide more quantitative information on pool boiling in microgravity. Ground-based investigations are also being conducted to develop mechanistic models for flow and pool boiling. An overview of the research plan and roadmap for the strategic research in multiphase flow and phase change as well as research findings from the ongoing program will be presented.

Singh, Bhim S.↗
NASA NTRS2008

Using Wind and Temperature Fields to Study Dehydration Mechanisms in the Tropical Tropopause Layer

The tropics are the main region for troposphere-to-stratosphere transport (TST) of air. One of the dominant mechanisms that control tropical TST of water vapor is freeze-drying by the cold tropical tropopause. This mechanism is supported by evidence from satellite observations of the "tape recorder", where seasonal changes in stratospheric water vapor are in phase with seasonal changes in tropopause temperatures in the tropics. Over the last few years, however, the concept of the tropical tropopause has evolved from a single material surface to a layer called the Tropical Tropopause Layer (TTL). A recent hypothesis on dehydration mechanisms suggests that dehydration and entry point into the stratosphere are not always co-located (Holton and Gettelman, 2001). Instead, dehydration can occur during horizontal advection through Lagrangian 'cold pools', or coldest regions along a parcel's trajectory, as air ascends within the TTL while the entry point into the stratosphere occurs at a different geographical location. In this study, we investigate the impact that these Lagrangian cold pools have on TTL moisture. For this purpose, we use in situ measurements of TTL water vapor obtained aboard NASA's WB-57 aircraft over the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and we compare these measurements to minimum saturation water vapor mixing ratios obtained from three-dimensional backward trajectory calculations. Aircraft measurements show frequent unsaturated conditions, which suggest that the entry value of stratospheric water vapor in this region was not set by local saturation conditions. Trajectory calculations, driven by both ECMWF operational analysis and reanalysis winds and temperature fields, are used to explore the impact (e.g., geographical location, timing, dehydration magnitude) of the Lagrangian cold pools intercepted by the parcels sampled by the aircraft. We find noteworthy differences in the location of the Lagrangian cold pools using the two ECMWF data sets, namely influence of the Western Tropical Pacific region when using operational analysis fields versus influence of the Eastern Tropical Pacific and South America regions when using reanalysis fields. These results have a significant impact on our scientific conclusions on dehydration mechanisms affecting the air sampled by the aircraft, given that these regions have different thermodynamic and convective properties.

Pittman, Jasna↗
NASA NTRS2009

Sensitivity of a Cloud-Resolving Model to Bulk and Explicit Bin Microphysical Schemes: Cloud Microphysics and Storm Dynamics Interactions - Part 2

Part I of this paper compares two simulations, one using a bulk and the other a detailed bin microphysical scheme, of a long-lasting, continental mesoscale convective system with leading convection and trailing stratiform region. Diagnostic studies and sensitivity tests are carried out in Part II to explain the simulated contrasts in the spatial and temporal variations by the two microphysical schemes and to understand the interactions between cloud microphysics and storm dynamics. It is found that the fixed raindrop size distribution in the bulk scheme artificially enhances rain evaporation rate and produces a stronger near surface cool pool compared with the bin simulation. In the bulk simulation, cool pool circulation dominates the near-surface environmental wind shear in contrast to the near-balance between cool pool and wind shear in the bin simulation. This is the main reason for the contrasting quasi-steady states simulated in Part I. Sensitivity tests also show that large amounts of fast-falling hail produced in the original bulk scheme not only result in a narrow trailing stratiform region but also act to further exacerbate the strong cool pool simulated in the bulk parameterization. An empirical formula for a correction factor, r(q(sub r)) = 0.11q(sub r)(exp -1.27) + 0.98, is developed to correct the overestimation of rain evaporation in the bulk model, where r is the ratio of the rain evaporation rate between the bulk and bin simulations and q(sub r)(g per kilogram) is the rain mixing ratio. This formula offers a practical fix for the simple bulk scheme in rain evaporation parameterization.

Li, Xiaowen↗
NASA NTRS2013

Use of beam deflection to control an electron beam wire deposition process

A method for controlling an electron beam process wherein a wire is melted and deposited on a substrate as a molten pool comprises generating the electron beam with a complex raster pattern, and directing the beam onto an outer surface of the wire to thereby control a location of the wire with respect to the molten pool. Directing the beam selectively heats the outer surface of the wire and maintains the position of the wire with respect to the molten pool. An apparatus for controlling an electron beam process includes a beam gun adapted for generating the electron beam, and a controller adapted for providing the electron beam with a complex raster pattern and for directing the electron beam onto an outer surface of the wire to control a location of the wire with respect to the molten pool.

Taminger, Karen M.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Characteristics of Mesoscale Organization in WRF Simulations of Convection during TWP-ICE

Compared to satellite-derived heating profiles, the Goddard Institute for Space Studies general circulation model (GCM) convective heating is too deep and its stratiform upper-level heating is too weak. This deficiency highlights the need for GCMs to parameterize the mesoscale organization of convection. Cloud-resolving model simulations of convection near Darwin, Australia, in weak wind shear environments of different humidities are used to characterize mesoscale organization processes and to provide parameterization guidance. Downdraft cold pools appear to stimulate further deep convection both through their effect on eddy size and vertical velocity. Anomalously humid air surrounds updrafts, reducing the efficacy of entrainment. Recovery of cold pool properties to ambient conditions over 5-6 h proceeds differently over land and ocean. Over ocean increased surface fluxes restore the cold pool to prestorm conditions. Over land surface fluxes are suppressed in the cold pool region; temperature decreases and humidity increases, and both then remain nearly constant, while the undisturbed environment cools diurnally. The upper-troposphere stratiform rain region area lags convection by 5-6 h under humid active monsoon conditions but by only 1-2 h during drier break periods, suggesting that mesoscale organization is more readily sustained in a humid environment. Stratiform region hydrometeor mixing ratio lags convection by 0-2 h, suggesting that it is strongly influenced by detrainment from convective updrafts. Small stratiform region temperature anomalies suggest that a mesoscale updraft parameterization initialized with properties of buoyant detrained air and evolving to a balance between diabatic heating and adiabatic cooling might be a plausible approach for GCMs.

Del Genio, Anthony D.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Investigation into the Use of the Concept Laser QM System as an In-Situ Research and Evaluation Tool

The NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is using a Concept Laser Fusing (Cusing) M2 powder bed additive manufacturing system for the build of space flight prototypes and hardware. NASA MSFC is collecting and analyzing data from the M2 QM Meltpool and QM Coating systems for builds. This data is intended to aide in understanding of the powder-bed additive manufacturing process, and in the development of a thermal model for the process. The QM systems are marketed by Concept Laser GmbH as in-situ quality management modules. The QM Meltpool system uses both a high-speed near-IR camera and a photodiode to monitor the melt pool generated by the laser. The software determines from the camera images the size of the melt pool. The camera also measures the integrated intensity of the IR radiation, and the photodiode gives an intensity value based on the brightness of the melt pool. The QM coating system uses a high resolution optical camera to image the surface after each layer has been formed. The objective of this investigation was to determine the adequacy of the QM Meltpool system as a research instrument for in-situ measurement of melt pool size and temperature and its applicability to NASA's objectives in (1) Developing a process thermal model and (2) Quantifying feedback measurements with the intent of meeting quality requirements or specifications. Note that Concept Laser markets the system only as capable of giving an indication of changes between builds, not as an in-situ research and evaluation tool. A secondary objective of the investigation is to determine the adequacy of the QM Coating system as an in-situ layer-wise geometry and layer quality evaluation tool.

Bagg, Stacey↗
NASA NTRS2017

Height Control and Deposition Measurement for the Electron Beam Free Form Fabrication (EBF3) Process

A method of controlling a height of an electron beam gun and wire feeder during an electron freeform fabrication process includes utilizing a camera to generate an image of the molten pool of material. The image generated by the camera is utilized to determine a measured height of the electron beam gun relative to the surface of the molten pool. The method further includes ensuring that the measured height is within the range of acceptable heights of the electron beam gun relative to the surface of the molten pool. The present invention also provides for measuring a height of a solid metal deposit formed upon cooling of a molten pool. The height of a single point can be measured, or a plurality of points can be measured to provide 2D or 3D surface height measurements.

Seufzer, William J.↗