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DOE OSTI2021

Comparison of potential drinking water source contamination across one hundred U.S. cities

Abstract Drinking water supplies of cities are exposed to potential contamination arising from land use and other anthropogenic activities in local and distal source watersheds. Because water quality sampling surveys are often piecemeal, regionally inconsistent, and incomplete with respect to unregulated contaminants, the United States lacks a detailed comparison of potential source water contamination across all of its large cities. Here we combine national-scale geospatial datasets with hydrologic simulations to compute two metrics representing potential contamination of water supplies from point and nonpoint sources for over a hundred U.S. cities. We reveal enormous diversity in anthropogenic activities across watersheds with corresponding disparities in the potential contamination of drinking water supplies to cities. Approximately 5% of large cities rely on water that is composed primarily of runoff from non-pristine lands (e.g., agriculture, residential, industrial), while four-fifths of all large cities that withdraw surface water are exposed to treated wastewater in their supplies.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS2014

On a Solar Origin for the Cosmogenic Nuclide Event of 775 A.D.

We explore requirements for a solar particle event (SPE) and flare capable of producing the cosmogenic nuclide event of 775 A.D., and review solar circumstances at that time. A solar source for 775 would require a greater than 1 GV spectrum approximately 45 times stronger than that of the intense high-energy SPE of 1956 February 23. This implies a greater than 30 MeV proton fluence (F(sub 30)) of approximately 8 × 10(exp 10) proton cm(exp −2), approximately 10 times larger than that of the strongest 3 month interval of SPE activity in the modern era. This inferred F(sub 30) value for the 775 SPE is inconsistent with the occurrence probability distribution for greater than 30 MeV solar proton events. The best guess value for the soft X-ray classification (total energy) of an associated flare is approximately X230 (approximately 9 × 10(exp 33) erg). For comparison, the flares on 2003 November 4 and 1859 September 1 had observed/inferred values of approximately X35 (approximately 10(exp 33) erg) and approximately X45 (approximately 2 × 10(exp 33) erg), respectively. The estimated size of the source active region for a approximately 10(exp 34) erg flare is approximately 2.5 times that of the largest region yet recorded. The 775 event occurred during a period of relatively low solar activity, with a peak smoothed amplitude about half that of the second half of the 20th century. The approximately 1945-1995 interval, the most active of the last approximately 2000 yr, failed to witness a SPE comparable to that required for the proposed solar event in 775. These considerations challenge a recent suggestion that the 775 event is likely of solar origin.

solar particles↗

DOE OSTI2021

Hydrogen Bonding and Its Effect on the Orientational Dynamics of Water Molecules inside Polyelectrolyte Brush-Induced Soft and Active Nanoconfinement

Despite being the most ubiquitous compound on Earth, the fundamental properties of water are not fully understood, especially in nanoconfinement. Densely grafted polyelectrolyte (PE) molecules attain the configuration of a “brush”: these PE brushes, due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds (HBs) with water via the PE functional groups, act as a source of soft and active nanoconfinement for the brush-trapped water molecules. In this paper, we study the effects of PE brush-induced confinement on the structure, dynamics and energetics of the water-water and water-PE HBs. Our results indicate a significant weakening of the HBs from bulk to sparsely grafted to densely grafted brushes. i.e., by increasing the degree of brush-induced nanoconfinement. We explain that this weakening of water-water HBs is caused by the disruption of the extended network of water molecules within the brush-induced nanoconfinement. This is confirmed by performing a ring structure analysis of the water molecules, which yields a reduction in the average ring size at higher degrees of brush-induced nanoconfinement (i.e., at higher brush grafting densities). Furthermore, we investigate the role of HB on the orientational dynamics of the water molecules. Here, we observe that the rotational motion of the water molecules becomes sluggish inside the PE brushes. Recent findings have indicated that the water and counterions trapped in brush-induced nanoconfinement demonstrate structures (in combination with the PE functional group) analogous to that in “water-in-salt” electrolytes that have seen extensive recent uses for Li-ion battery applications. However, the rotational dynamics of water molecules inside the brush-induced nanoconfinement is found to be distinctly different from that of conventional “water-in-salt” electrolytes in absence of any confinement; therefore, the present study will provide the necessary platform towards conceptualizing polymer-based nanoconfinement for battery applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2014

Innovative methodology for intercomparison of radionuclide calibrators using short half-life in situ prepared radioactive sources

Purpose: An original radionuclide calibrator method for activity determination is presented. The method could be used for intercomparison surveys for short half-life radioactive sources used in Nuclear Medicine, such as{sup 99m}Tc or most positron emission tomography radiopharmaceuticals. Methods: By evaluation of the resulting net optical density (netOD) using a standardized scanning method of irradiated Gafchromic XRQA2 film, a comparison of the netOD measurement with a previously determined calibration curve can be made and the difference between the tested radionuclide calibrator and a radionuclide calibrator used as reference device can be calculated. To estimate the total expected measurement uncertainties, a careful analysis of the methodology, for the case of{sup 99m}Tc, was performed: reproducibility determination, scanning conditions, and possible fadeout effects. Since every factor of the activity measurement procedure can influence the final result, the method also evaluates correct syringe positioning inside the radionuclide calibrator. Results: As an alternative to using a calibrated source sent to the surveyed site, which requires a relatively long half-life of the nuclide, or sending a portable calibrated radionuclide calibrator, the proposed method uses a source preparedin situ. An indirect activity determination is achieved by the irradiation of a radiochromic film using {sup 99m}Tc under strictly controlled conditions, and cumulated activity calculation from the initial activity and total irradiation time. The irradiated Gafchromic film and the irradiator, without the source, can then be sent to a National Metrology Institute for evaluation of the results. Conclusions: The methodology described in this paper showed to have a good potential for accurate (3%) radionuclide calibrators intercomparison studies for{sup 99m}Tc between Nuclear Medicine centers without source transfer and can easily be adapted to other short half-life radionuclides.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Enhancing the activity of Fe-N-C oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalysts by high-throughput exploration of synthesis parameters

Here, the most active class of platinum group metal-free (PGM-free) oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) electrocatalysts in acidic electrolytes are those synthesized by heat treatment of iron, carbon, nitrogen precursors (Fe-N-C). Due to the large number of possible precursor compounds, a small fraction of the synthesis variable space has been explored. Correlation of synthesis variables with Fe speciation and ORR activity has been limited. In this work, an automation platform and a multi-port ball-milling were utilized to evaluate the effects of synthesis variables, such as identity of iron precursor, iron loading, and carbon and nitrogen sources on the ORR activity of iron -nitrogen-carbon catalysts in acidic electrolyte. The ORR activity is correlated with catalyst Fe speciation determined using Fe K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAFS).

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗

NASA NTRS1986

Dust activity of Comet Halley's nucleus

Images obtained by the Halley multicolor camera using the clear filter with a pass band from 300 to 1000 nm were used to study dust activity in the comet nucleus. Comparisons with ground based observations confirm that dust production towards the Sun increases in activity relative to the southern background source while the Giotto spacecraft was approaching. This is in agreement with the assumption that the sunward activity becomes stronger when the source rotates towards the Sun. Estimated dust column density is 90 billion/sqm, with optical thickness less than or = 0.3. Surface reflectivity is less than 1%, indicating a very rough surface with large fractions of shadowed areas.

Keller, H. U.↗

DOE OSTI2021

The radio loudness of SDSS quasars from the LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey: ubiquitous jet activity and constraints on star formation

ABSTRACT We examine the distribution of radio emission from ∼42 000 quasars from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, as measured in the LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey (LoTSS). We present a model of the radio luminosity distribution of the quasars that assumes that every quasar displays a superposition of two sources of radio emission: active galactic nuclei (jets) and star formation. Our two-component model provides an excellent match to the observed radio flux density distributions across a wide range of redshifts and quasar optical luminosities; this suggests that the jet-launching mechanism operates in all quasars but with different powering efficiency. The wide distribution of jet powers allows for a smooth transition between the ‘radio-quiet’ and ‘radio-loud’ quasar regimes, without need for any explicit bimodality. The best-fitting model parameters indicate that the star formation rate of quasar host galaxies correlates strongly with quasar luminosity and also increases with redshift at least out to z ∼ 2. For a model where star formation rate scales as $L_{\rm bol}^{\alpha } (1+z)^{\beta }$, we find α = 0.47 ± 0.01 and β = 1.61 ± 0.05, in agreement with far-infrared studies. Quasars contribute ≈0.15 per cent of the cosmic star formation rate density at z = 0.5, rising to 0.4 per cent by z ∼ 2. The typical radio jet power is seen to increase with both increasing optical luminosity and black hole mass independently, but does not vary with redshift, suggesting intrinsic properties govern the production of the radio jets. We discuss the implications of these results for the triggering of quasar activity and the launching of jets.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

NASA NTRS1994

Transversely polarized source cladding for an optical fiber

An optical fiber comprising a fiber core having a longitudinal symmetry axis is provided. An active cladding surrounds a portion of the fiber core and comprises light-producing sources which emit light in response to chemical or light excitation. The cladding sources are oriented transversely with respect to the longitudinal axis of the fiber core. This polarization results in a superior power efficiency compared to active cladding sources that are randomly polarized or longitudinally polarized parallel with the longitudinal symmetry axis.

Egalon, Claudio Oliveira↗

DOE OSTI2015

LARGE-SCALE CONTRACTION AND SUBSEQUENT DISRUPTION OF CORONAL LOOPS DURING VARIOUS PHASES OF THE M6.2 FLARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONFINED FLUX ROPE ERUPTION

We investigate evolutionary phases of an M6.2 flare and the associated confined eruption of a prominence. The pre-flare phase exhibits spectacular large-scale contraction of overlying extreme ultraviolet (EUV) coronal loops during which the loop system was subjected to an altitude decrease of ∼20 Mm (40% of the initial height) for an extended span of ∼30 minutes. This contraction phase is accompanied by sequential EUV brightenings associated with hard X-ray (HXR; up to 25 keV) and microwave (MW) sources from low-lying loops in the core region which together with X-ray spectra indicate strong localized heating in the source region before the filament activation. With the onset of the flare’s impulsive phase, we detect HXR and MW sources that exhibit intricate temporal and spatial evolution in relation to the fast rise of the prominence. Following the flare maximum, the filament eruption slowed down and subsequently became confined within the large overlying active region loops. During the confinement process of the erupting prominence, we detect MW emission from the extended coronal region with multiple emission centroids, which likely represent emission from hot blobs of plasma formed after the collapse of the expanding flux rope and entailing prominence material. RHESSI spectroscopy reveals high plasma temperature (∼30 MK) and substantial non-thermal characteristics (δ ∼ 5) during the impulsive phase of the flare. The time evolution of thermal energy exhibits a good correspondence with the variations in cumulative non-thermal energy, which suggests that the energy of accelerated particles is efficiently converted to hot flare plasma, implying an effective validation of the Neupert effect.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

NASA NTRS1981

Underground coal mining section data

A set of tables which display the allocation of time for ten personnel and eight pieces of underground coal mining equipment to ten function categories is provided. Data from 125 full shift time studies contained in the KETRON database was utilized as the primary source data. The KETRON activity and delay codes were mapped onto JPL equipment, personnel and function categories. Computer processing was then performed to aggregate the shift level data and generate the matrices. Additional, documented time study data were analyzed and used to supplement the KETRON databased. The source data including the number of shifts are described. Specific parameters of the mines from which there data were extracted are presented. The result of the data processing including the required JPL matrices is presented. A brief comparison with a time study analysis of continuous mining systems is presented. The procedures used for processing the source data are described.

Gabrill, C. P.↗

DOE OSTI2016

Investigating the zonal wind response to SST warming using transient ensemble AGCM experiments

The response of the atmospheric circulation to greenhouse gas-induced SST warming is investigated using large ensemble experiments with two AGCMs, with a focus on the robust feature of the poleward shift of the eddy driven jet. In these experiments, large ensembles of simulations are conducted by abruptly switching the SST forcing on from January 1st to focus on the wintertime circulation adjustment. A hybrid, nite amplitude wave activity budget analysis is performed to elucidate the nonlinear and irreversible aspects of the eddy-mean ow interaction during the adjustment of the zonal wind towards a poleward shifted state. The results conrm the results from earlier more idealized studies, particularly the importance of reduced dissipation of wave activity and the dominant role of the decrease of elective diffusivity in the midlatitudes. Some quantitative discrences do exist between the wave activity budgets of our more realistic experiments and the earlier idealized ones, including larger wave activity tendency and diabatic wave source, and a somewhat greater role of the changing PV gradient in the total reduction of the wave activity dissipation. The relative importance of wave breaking-induced PV mixing versus diabatic PV source in the evolution of the Lagrangian PV gradient is also investigated. The former plays the dominant role in the PV gradient formation during the initial phase of the jet shift, while the latter even opposes the evolution of the Lagrangian PV gradient at times. The possible involvement of the wave reflection level at the poleward flank of the mean jet is also investigated.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2014

Comprehensive monitoring of gamma-ray bright blazars. I. Statistical study of optical, X-ray, and gamma-ray spectral slopes

We present γ-ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, and near-infrared light curves of 33 γ-ray bright blazars over 4 years that we have been monitoring since 2008 August with multiple optical, ground-based telescopes and the Swift satellite, and augmented by data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and other publicly available data from Swift. The sample consists of 21 flat-spectrum radio quasars (FSRQs) and 12 BL Lac objects (BL Lacs). We identify quiescent and active states of the sources based on their γ-ray behavior. We derive γ-ray, X-ray, and optical spectral indices, α{sub γ}, α{sub X}, and α{sub o}, respectively (F{sub ν}∝ν{sup α}), and construct spectral energy distributions during quiescent and active states. We analyze the relationships between different spectral indices, blazar classes, and activity states. We find (1) significantly steeper γ-ray spectra of FSRQs than for BL Lacs during quiescent states, but a flattening of the spectra for FSRQs during active states while the BL Lacs show no significant change; (2) a small difference of α{sub X} within each class between states, with BL Lac X-ray spectra significantly steeper than in FSRQs; (3) a highly peaked distribution of X-ray spectral slopes of FSRQs at ∼ –0.60, but a very broad distribution of α{sub X} of BL Lacs during active states; (4) flattening of the optical spectra of FSRQs during quiescent states, but no statistically significant change of α{sub o} of BL Lacs between states; and (5) a positive correlation between optical and γ-ray spectral slopes of BL Lacs, with similar values of the slopes. We discuss the findings with respect to the relative prominence of different components of high-energy and optical emission as the flux state changes.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2012

High resolution stationary digital breast tomosynthesis using distributed carbon nanotube x-ray source array

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the feasibility of increasing the system spatial resolution and scanning speed of Hologic Selenia Dimensions digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT) scanner by replacing the rotating mammography x-ray tube with a specially designed carbon nanotube (CNT) x-ray source array, which generates all the projection images needed for tomosynthesis reconstruction by electronically activating individual x-ray sources without any mechanical motion. The stationary digital breast tomosynthesis (s-DBT) design aims to (i) increase the system spatial resolution by eliminating image blurring due to x-ray tube motion and (ii) reduce the scanning time. Low spatial resolution and long scanning time are the two main technical limitations of current DBT technology. Methods: A CNT x-ray source array was designed and evaluated against a set of targeted system performance parameters. Simulations were performed to determine the maximum anode heat load at the desired focal spot size and to design the electron focusing optics. Field emission current from CNT cathode was measured for an extended period of time to determine the stable life time of CNT cathode for an expected clinical operation scenario. The source array was manufactured, tested, and integrated with a Selenia scanner. An electronic control unit was developed to interface the source array with the detection system and to scan and regulate x-ray beams. The performance of the s-DBT system was evaluated using physical phantoms. Results: The spatially distributed CNT x-ray source array comprised 31 individually addressable x-ray sources covering a 30 angular span with 1 pitch and an isotropic focal spot size of 0.6 mm at full width at half-maximum. Stable operation at 28 kV(peak) anode voltage and 38 mA tube current was demonstrated with extended lifetime and good source-to-source consistency. For the standard imaging protocol of 15 views over 14, 100 mAs dose, and 2 x 2 detector binning, the projection resolution along the scanning direction increased from 4.0 cycles/mm [at 10% modulation-transfer-function (MTF)] in DBT to 5.1 cycles/mm in s-DBT at magnification factor of 1.08. The improvement is more pronounced for faster scanning speeds, wider angular coverage, and smaller detector pixel sizes. The scanning speed depends on the detector, the number of views, and the imaging dose. With 240 ms detector readout time, the s-DBT system scanning time is 6.3 s for a 15-view, 100 mAs scan regardless of the angular coverage. The scanning speed can be reduced to less than 4 s when detectors become faster. Initial phantom studies showed good quality reconstructed images. Conclusions: A prototype s-DBT scanner has been developed and evaluated by retrofitting the Selenia rotating gantry DBT scanner with a spatially distributed CNT x-ray source array. Preliminary results show that it improves system spatial resolution substantially by eliminating image blur due to x-ray focal spot motion. The scanner speed of s-DBT system is independent of angular coverage and can be increased with faster detector without image degration. The accelerated lifetime measurement demonstrated the long term stability of CNT x-ray source array with typical clinical operation lifetime over 3 years.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2022

Fabrication of Advanced Nanocarbon-Metal Composites for Improved Energy Efficiency

We fabricated nanocarbon metal composites (NCMC) of Al alloys with a process called “electrocharging assisted process” (EAP). This method consists of the application of a high current to a mixture of liquid metal and carbon particles. We investigated aluminum alloys (6061 and 1350) and used activated carbon and graphite powder as the source of carbon. The high current induces the formation of carbon chains and ribbons in the liquid metal. Upon solidification of the metal an epitaxial relation between the carbon nanostructures and the metal lattice is produced. The purpose of the project was to find the parameters during the reaction that would give rise to a high density of nanoribbons extending throughout the metal such that the electrical conductivity and the mechanical strength of the composite increased and that the method could be extended to large scale manufacturing. For this purpose, we designed two reactors for the incorporation of nanocarbon ribbons in aluminum metal. The first reactor was designed to have more control of the region with the high current density. However, there were problems with getting good mixing of the carbon in small volumes. A second reactor was designed with a stirrer that allowed for better mixing of the carbon by the introduction of argon gas through the shaft of the stirrer. NCMC were fabricated with a series of parameters to understand the role of current, time of applied current, type and shape of the cathode electrode and stirring speed of the mixture. We analyzed the composites by Raman scattering to gain information on the crystallite size of the nanocarbon, XRD to obtain the crystal structure of the composite, SEM and TEM to characterize the grain size of the aluminum grains and the quality of the crystal structure. We also measured the electrical conductivity and mechanical properties of selected samples. The nanocomposites showed increase in crystallite size of the nanocarbon with a linear dependence of the crystallite size on the duration of the applied current. There is a minimum current density necessary for the crystallite size to increase compared to the ~ 10 nm size of the activated carbon source used in the fabrication. The electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites increased with crystallite size of the nanocarbon and with the concentration of converted carbon. The maximum increase in electrical conductivity was 5.7% above the baseline for samples with ~ 4 wt % nanocarbon with crystallite size larger than 30 nm. These samples presented a hardness ~ 8% higher than the baseline samples with no carbon.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2017

Occultations of Astrophysical Radio Sources as Probes of Planetary Environments: A Case Study of Jupiter and Possible Applications to Exoplanets

Properties of planetary atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres are difficult to measure from Earth. Radio occultations are a common method for measuring these properties, but they traditionally rely on radio transmissions from a spacecraft near the planet. Here, we explore whether occultations of radio emissions from a distant astrophysical radio source can be used to measure magnetic field strength, plasma density, and neutral density around planets. In a theoretical case study of Jupiter, we find that significant changes in polarization angle due to Faraday rotation occur for radio signals that pass within 10 Jupiter radii of the planet and that significant changes in frequency and power occur from radio signals that pass through the neutral atmosphere. There are sufficient candidate radio sources, such as pulsars, active galactic nuclei, and masers, that occultations are likely to occur at least once per year. For pulsars, time delays in the arrival of their emitted pulses can be used to measure plasma density. Exoplanets, whose physical properties are very challenging to observe, may also occult distant astrophysical radio sources, such as their parent stars.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Robotic Systems integration for cleanroom SRF assembly at Fermilab

Superconducting Radio Frequency (SRF) cryomodule assembly is a critical process that demands the highest levels of contamination control in a cleanroom to ensure product quality and reliability. Within the cleanroom environment, human-driven activities remain the major source of uncontrolled particulate. Moreover, the precise manual alignment of components often exceeds expected timeframes, increasing the risk of particulate migration into the critical inner space of the SRF resonant cavity, and causing extended discomfort for workers. Automation comes as a natural solution to address these challenges. The goal of this activity is to set up and integrate a robotic system to support cavity coupler installation in the cleanroom environment. Initially, remote control of a 6-axis collaborative robot arm will be implemented as an introductory step towards automation in the cleanroom. Subsequently, the system will be further enhanced by integrating manipulation capabilities through an appropriate end-effector, and computer vision technology to enable accurate pose estimation. This comprehensive approach aims to achieve a fully automated and adaptable assembly process in the partially structured cleanroom environment, thereby enhancing efficiency and mitigating existing challenges for better product quality and workers safety.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2012

Radiation Field of Packages Carrying Spent Co-60 Radioactive Sources - 12437

Among the diverse radioactive sources commonly exploited in medical and industrial applications, Co- 60 is increasingly used as strong gamma emitter. Over time, source manufacturers favored Co-60 as opposed to other gamma emitters because its relatively short half-life (5.27 year) that minimizes issues related to the management of disused sources. Disused Co-60 sources can retain a significant amount of radioactivity (from hundreds of MBq to several GBq) that still poses safety concerns on their handling and transportation. In this context a detailed knowledge of their radiation field would provide the necessary information for taking actions in preventing unnecessary doses to the workers and the population by optimizing transportation procedures and handling operations. We modeled the geometry and the materials constituting a transportation packaging of a spent Co-60 source which had an original maximum activity of a few GBq and was enclosed in a small lead irradiator. Then we applied a Monte Carlo transport code (MCNP5) for tracking down the gamma photons emitted by the source, including the secondary photons resulting by the interaction of the source photons with the surrounding materials. This allowed for the evaluation of the radiation field inside and outside the packaging, and the corresponding equivalent dose useful for checking the compliance with the regulations and the health risk of possible radiation exposure. We found that a typical 60-liters drum carrying a spent Co-60 source, enclosed in its original irradiator, with a residual activity of 300 MBq could already overcome an equivalent dose of 0.2 mSv/h on the drum external surface, which is the maximum equivalent dose at any point of the surface for this packaging as prescribed by local regulations. This condition is even more apparent when the source is slightly displaced with respect to the rotation axis of the drum, an easily occurring condition for sources not properly packaged, generating non-compliant hot-spots on the drum surface. As an example, a displacement of 5 cm translates in an increase of 80% in the dose level on the nearest side of the drum. We also found that the equivalent dose is significantly influenced by the scattered source photons and the secondary photons, whose contribution to the radiation field is mainly determined by the package geometry. The developed model resulted in an important tool for exploring the detail of the radiation field of a spent Co-60 source packaged for transportation allowing to check for compliance with the regulations and to evaluate risks to the workers and the population. It is worth to point out that this modeling approach is completely general and can be applied to a variety of different problems not limited to the transportation of radioactive material. In the example illustrated in this work, a small Co-60 source inside its irradiator and properly packaged in a drum for transport, presents a hot-spot on the drum surface if the irradiator is displaced of just few centimeters with respect to the rotation axis of the drum. A Monte Carlo simulation provided a complete description of the radiation field in the volume surrounding the packaging as a function of photon energy showing that a significant contribution comes from source photons scattered by the package itself. As an example, the Transport Index (TI) of this packaging was calculated, resulting in a value of 0.5. This value is low when compared to the regulations, however suggests that an individual just 1 meter afar from the packaging receives, in a few hours, a dose comparable to that received with a radiograph. This might be the case of the driver of a truck transporting the packaging, in particular when a number of packages are transported at the same time. It is important to notice that the results presented in this work are general, and can be appropriately scaled to represent the radiation field of similar geometries with gamma sources of different activity. However, this quick application of a Monte Carlo simulation provides useful insights in the process of preparing a packaging for transport. This simple model suggests that this approach can be efficient for screening a number of packaging configurations and flagging those potentially not compliant with regulations, that will require a more thorough care in the packaging process. Furthermore the knowledge of the details of the radiation field can be useful for optimizing the geometry of the transport cargo, and becomes essential when a variety of packaging are transported or stored, in order to prevent hazardous situations during their handling, and hence preventing unnecessary doses to the workers and the populations. It is worth to point out that this modeling approach is completely general and can be applied to a variety of different problems not limited to the transportation of radioactive material. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2016

Selection and Validation of Alternate Slag Sources for Saltstone Production - 16145

To stabilize low activity salt solution produced at the Savannah River Site (SRS) the salt waste is mixed with a combination of fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) to form a grout termed saltstone. Upon curing, the low activity waste is encapsulated within the hardened cementitious matrix. While the sources of the dry feed components have remained unchanged for several years, SRS was recently notified that its domestic source of GGBFS would no longer be available due to the shutdown of the steel making plant that produced the ferrous slag as a by-product. This shut-down follows a trend in the reduction of domestic ferrous slag sources. Alternate GGBFS vendors were sought and a program developed to validate the alternate sources for use in saltstone. GGBFS is primarily utilized in the construction industry as a replacement for OPC and the requirements of a GGBFS source, based on an American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard, are predominantly limited to demonstrating that the GGBFS replacement will provide equivalent strength in comparison to the baseline OPC-based concrete. This affords the construction industry significant flexibility with respect to the GGBFS source that can be used. In contrast, GGBFS has a role of significantly more importance when utilized in saltstone. In particular, the reducing blast furnace environment under which GGBFS is produced yields reducing species, such as sulfide (S{sup 2-}) and ferrous iron (Fe{sup 2+}), which are believed to facilitate the long-term immobilization of redox sensitive contaminants (e.g. technetium-99 ({sup 99}Tc)). In addition, a change in GGBFS source has the potential to impact the rheological properties and the reactive heat generation of the grout, which may adversely affect the ability to pump the grout to a Saltstone Disposal Unit (SDU) and the temperatures attained within an SDU, respectively. As such, alternate GGBFS sources for the processing of saltstone require significantly more scrutiny than is prescribed by the ASTM standard. Four alternate GGBFS sources were evaluated. All four sources met the ASTM requirements, only one source was considered viable for use in saltstone based on preliminary evaluation. The other three sources will require a more intensive assessment to determine their potential applicability. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗