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NASA NTRS1991

Graben and extension in northern Tharsis, Mars

A morphometric analysis of north-south trending graben at 35 deg N in northern Tharsis is used to provide the first quantitative measurements of crustal extension in and strain for areas of the Martian crust that have undergone both extreme and mild deformation. These estimates also demonstrate the viability of the Viking data for making such quantitative assessment. Graben in the region accommodate about 8 km of post Early Amazonian east-west extension. This extension corresponds to a net regional strain of 0.45-0.61 percent; local strains vary from less than 1 percent to 5 percent. Extension is nonuniform and localized near 110 deg (south of Alba Patera and north of Ceraunius Fossae) because of reactivation of preexisting fractures in underlying basement and possibly due to superposition of stress fields from Tharsis and Alba Patera. A major mechanical discontinuity in the shallow crust, probably representing the base of or a strength contrast within the megaregolith, is observed. It occurs at a depth of 2 km on the profile flanks and is depressed to about 7.5 km near 110 deg due to loading of the crust by the volcano.

Plescia, J. B.↗
NASA NTRS1991

General patterns of flow field growth - Aa and blocky lavas

Lava flowfields consist of one or more flows. Four ideal emplacement regimes are recognized: that for single flows and that for flowfields dominated by (1) widening, (2) thickening, or (3) lengthening, as a result of generating new flows. Most aa and blocky lavas belong to the flowfield widening or single-flow regimes. These two regimes are analyzed assuming advance is controlled by the distal core of a flow, where motion is treated as steady, uniform, and laminar. Because of low deformation rates, the distal core is also approximated to a Newtonian fluid. Widening and, possibly, lengthening are ultimately limited by crustal resistance. After a critical cooling interval, new flows are generated from the upper reaches of the flowfield. A simple relation is derived linking flowfield dimensions and underlying slope to eruption duration, independent of terms involving gravity or lava chemistry and rheology. The relation well describes field data from several volcanoes (involving lava compositions from K phonolitic tephrite to dacite). This supports the premise that the overall growth of aa and blocky flowfields is systematic and also suggests that such growth may be predictable at timescales greater than, or similar to, the emplacement times of major flows.

Kilburn, Christopher R. J.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Mt. Pinatubo SO2 column measurements from Mauna Loa

Absorption features of the nu sub 1 band of SO2 are identified in high-resolution IR solar-absorption spectra recorded from Mauna Loa, Hawaii, on July 9 and 12, 1991, shortly after the arrival of the first eruption plume from the Mt. Pinatubo volcano. A total SO2 vertical column amount of (5.1 +/- 0.5) x 10 exp 16 molecules/sq cm on July 9 is retrieved based on nonlinear least-squares spectral fittings of 9 selected SO2 absorption features with an updated set of SO2 spectral parameters. A SO2 total-column upper limit of 0.9 x 10 exp 16 molecules/sq cm deduced from measurements on September 20-24, 1991, is consistent with the dispersion of the SO2 cloud and the rapid conversion of the SO2 vapor into volcanic aerosol particles.

Goldman, A.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Stratospheric temperature increases due to Pinatubo aerosols

Northern-Hemisphere stratospheric temperatures at 30 and 50 mb beginning in June 1991 are compared with 20-year (1965-1984) and 26-year (1964-1989) monthly means. Significant temperature increases are shown in July, August, September, and October for latitudes from approximately 30 deg N to the equator. In September and October deviations are observed for large areas between the equator and 30 deg N, with temperature increases as high as + 3.5 C occurring at some locations. The monthly averaged zonal mean 30-mb temperatures at 20 deg N in September and October were approximately 2.5 C higher that the 26-year mean, with some daily zonal mean increases of almost 3 C. Higher values occurred equatorward of 20 deg N. These warmings are due to absorption of radiation by the aerosols produced from the June eruptions of the volcano Pinatubo (15.1 deg N, 120.4 deg E) in the Philippines. Stratospheric warmings are expected to be occurring simultaneously at southern latitudes, especially from the equator to about 20 deg S, based on satellite and lidar measurements of the locations of the new aerosol layers. These localized temperature increases should decrease in magnitude and become more global as the cloud disperses globally and spreads in altitude.

Labitzke, K.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Earth observations during Space Shuttle flight STS-31: The earth from 600 km - April 24 through 29, 1990

Images taken aboard the Space Shuttle flight STS-31 are presented and discussed in terms of documenting key features and describing regional interrelationships. The images comprise regional views and continuous swath maps that are intended to serve as linkage and/or context for related photographs in the shuttle database. The Linhof hand-held mapping camera is employed at 20-s intervals resulting in contiguous swaths with 75-percent overlap, and Hasselblad images are taken simultaneously to complement the swaths. Specific examples of the products are given for regions including Lake Eyre, Australia, Madagascar, and Central America; specific landforms are also shown including the El Chichon volcano, and an example is shown of the differential heating of land and water. The photographs are considered useful for mapping large-scale features and for providing context for smaller image-data products.

Evans, Cynthia A.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Magma reservoirs and neutral buoyancy zones on Venus - Implications for the formation and evolution of volcanic landforms

The production of magma reservoirs and neutral buoyancy zones (NBZs) on Venus and the implications of their development for the formation and evolution of volcanic landforms are examined. The high atmospheric pressure on Venus reduces volatile exsolution and generally serves to inhibit the formation of NBZs and shallow magma reservoirs. For a range of common terrestrial magma-volatile contents, magma ascending and erupting near or below mean planetary radius (MPR) should not stall at shallow magma reservoirs; such eruptions are characterized by relatively high total volumes and effusion rates. For the same range of volatile contents at 2 km above MPR, about half of the cases result in the direct ascent of magma to the surface and half in the production of neutral buoyancy zones. NBZs and shallow magma reservoirs begin to appear as gas content increases and are nominally shallower on Venus than on earth. For a fixed volatile content, NBZs become deeper with increasing elevation: over the range of elevations treated in this study (-1 km to +4.4 km) depths differ by a factor of 2-4. Factors that may account for the low height of volcanoes on Venus are discussed.

Head, James W.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Caldera-structure relationships in Kenya - Observations from satellite data

Maps were constructed showing lineaments displayed on four Landsat MSS images, to study volcanic-tectonic relationships in the Kenya segment of the Gregory or eastern sector of the East African rift system. Many of the mapped lineaments correlated well with fractures shown on geological maps. Selected lineaments, transverse to the rift trend, could be extrapolated to intersect rift faults at locations correlative with the locations of Kenya's seven volcanic calderas. The volcano-genetic difference between these intersections vs. similar intersections having no obvious relationship to any type of volcanic vent is not yet understood.

Blodget, Herbert W.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Observations of reduced ozone concentrations in the tropical stratosphere after the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo

Two independent sets of data, one of aerosols from an airborne lidar system, and one of ozone from ozonesonde measurements indicate that significant ozone decreases may have happened as a result of the injection of debris by the Mt. Pinatubo volcano in June 1991. The amount of this reduction maximizes at 24-25 km, near the peak of the aerosol distribution, though a deficit is seen throughout the lower stratosphere between 19 and 28 km. The greatest differences observed prior and subsequent to the eruptions at these altitudes is 18-20 percent.

Grant, W. B.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Evidence for liquid-phase cirrus cloud formation from volcanic aerosols - Climatic implications

Supercooled droplets in cirrus uncinus cell heads between -40 and -50 C are identified from the First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Regional Experiment polarization lidar measurements. Although short-lived, complexes of these small liquid cells seem to have contributed importantly to the formation of the cirrus. Freezing-point depression effects in solution droplets, apparently resulting from relatively large cloud condensation nuclei of volcanic origin, can be used to explain this rare phenomenon. An unrecognized volcano-cirrus cloud climate feedback mechanism is implied by these findings.

Sassen, Kenneth↗
NASA NTRS1992

Volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation following the Toba super-eruption

Model calculations that investigate the possible climatic effects of the Toba volcanic cloud are presented. The increase in atmospheric opacity might have produced a 'volcanic winter', followed by a few years with maximum estimated annual hemispheric surface-temperature decreases of 3-5 C. The eruption occurred during the stage 5a-4 transition of the oxygen isotope record, a time of rapid ice growth and falling sea level. It is suggested that the Toba eruption may have greatly accelerated the shift to glacial conditions that was already under way, by inducing perennial snow cover and increased sea-ice extent at sensitive northern latitudes. As the onset of climate change may have helped to trigger the eruption itself, it is proposed that the Toba event may exemplify a more general climate-volcano feedback mechanism.

Rampino, Michael R.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Robot Would Reconfigure Modular Equipment

Special-purpose sets of equipment, packaged in identical modules with identical interconnecting mechanisms, attached to or detached from each other by specially designed robot, according to proposal. Two-arm walking robot connects and disconnects modules, operating either autonomously or under remote supervision. Robot walks along row of connected modules by grasping successive attachment subassemblies in hand-over-hand motion. Intended application for facility or station in outer space; robot reconfiguration scheme makes it unnecessary for astronauts to venture outside spacecraft or space station. Concept proves useful on Earth in assembly, disassembly, or reconfiguration of equipment in such hostile environments as underwater, near active volcanoes, or in industrial process streams.

Purves, Lloyd R.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Simulated meteorite impacts and volcanic explosions: Ejecta analyses and planetary implications

Past cratering studies have focused primarily on crater morphology. However, important questions remain about the nature of crater deposits. Phenomena that need to be studied include the distribution of shock effects in crater deposits and crater walls; the origin of mono- and polymict breccia; differences between local and distal ejecta; deformation induced by explosive volcanism; and the production of unshocked, high-speed ejecta that could form the lunar and martian meteorites found on the Earth. To study these phenomena, one must characterize ejecta and crater wall materials from impacts produced under controlled conditions. New efforts at LLNL simulate impacts and volcanism and study resultant deformation. All experiments use the two-stage light-gas gun facility at LLNL to accelerate projectiles to velocities of 0.2 to 4.3 km/s, including shock pressures of 0.9 to 50 GPa. We use granite targets and novel experimental geometries to unravel cratering processes in crystalline rocks. We have thus far conducted three types of simulations: soft recovery of ejecta, 'frozen crater' experiments, and an 'artificial volcano. Our ejecta recovery experiments produced a useful separation of impactites. Material originally below the projectile remained trapped there, embedded in the soft metal of the flyer plate. In contrast, material directly adjacent to the projectile was jetted away from the impact, producing an ejecta cone that was trapped in the foam recovery fixture. We find that a significant component of crater ejecta shows no signs of strong shock; this material comes from the near-surface 'interference zone' surrounding the impact site. This phenomenon explains the existence of unshocked meteorites on the Earth of lunar and martian origin. Impact of a large bolide on neighboring planets will produce high-speed, weakly shocked ejecta, which may be trapped by the Earth's gravitational field. 'Frozen crater' experiments show that the interference zone is highly localized; indeed, disaggregation does not extend beyond approx. 1.5 crater radii. A cone-shaped region extending downward from the impact site is completely disaggregated, including powdered rock that escaped into the projectile tube. Petrographic analysis of crater ejecta and wall material will be presented. Finally, study of ejecta from 0.9- and 1.3-GPa simulations of volcanic explosions reveal a complete lack of shock metamorphism. The ejecta shows no evidence of PDF's, amorphization, high-pressure phases, or mosaicism. Instead, all deformation was brittle, with fractures irregular (not planar) and most intergranular. The extent of fracturing was remarkable, with the entire sample reduced to fragments of gravel size and smaller.

Gratz, A. J.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Venusian impact basins and cratered terrains

The consensus regarding interpretation of Magellan radar imagery assigns Venus a young volcanic surface subjected in many areas to moderate crustal shortening. I infer that, on the contrary, ancient densely cratered terrain and large impact basins may be preserved over more than half the planet and that crustal shortening has been much overestimated. I see wind erosion and deposition as far more effective in modifying old structures. Integration with lunar chronology suggests that most of the surface of Venus may be older than 3.0 Ga and much may be older than 3.8 Ga. Broad volcanos, hug volcanic domes, plains preserving lobate flow patterns, and numerous lesser volcanic features, pocked sparsely by impact craters, are indeed obvious on Magellan imagery. Some of these postvolcanic impact craters have been slightly extended, but only a small portion has been flooded by still younger lavas. Relative ages of the young craters are indicated by the varying eolian removal of their forms and ejecta blankets and flow lobes, and the oldest are much subdued. If these young impact craters, maximum diameter 275 km, include all preserved impact structures, then their quantity and distribution indicate that Venus was largely resurfaced by volcanism approx. 0.5 Ga, subsequent eruptions having been at a much reduced rate. Away from the approx. 0.5 Ga volcanic features, much of Venus is, however, dominated by circular and subcircular features, 50-2000 km in diameter, many of them multiring, that may be mostly older impact and impact-melt structures substantially modified by wind action. Eolian erosion scoured to bedrock old ridges and uplands, including those that may be cratered terrains and the rims and outer-ring depressions of large impact basins, and removed all surficial deposits to the limits of resolution of the imagery. The complementary eolian deposits form not only dunes, wind streaks, and small plains, but also broad radar-dark plains, commonly assumed to be volcanic although lacking flow morphology, whose materials appear to be thick because they are smoothly compacted into buried craters.

Hamilton, Warren B.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Stratospheric processes: Observations and interpretation

Explaining the observed ozone trends discussed in an earlier update and predicting future trends requires an understanding of the stratospheric processes that affect ozone. Stratospheric processes occur on both large and small spatial scales and over both long and short periods of time. Because these diverse processes interact with each other, only in rare cases can individual processes be studied by direct observation. Generally the cause and effect relationships for ozone changes were established by comparisons between observations and model simulations. Increasingly, these comparisons rely on the developing, observed relationships among trace gases and dynamical quantities to initialize and constrain the simulations. The goal of this discussion of stratospheric processes is to describe the causes for the observed ozone trends as they are currently understood. At present, we understand with considerable confidence the stratospheric processes responsible for the Antarctic ozone hole but are only beginning to understand the causes of the ozone trends at middle latitudes. Even though the causes of the ozone trends at middle latitudes were not clearly determined, it is likely that they, just as those over Antarctica, involved chlorine and bromine chemistry that was enhanced by heterogeneous processes. This discussion generally presents only an update of the observations that have occurred for stratospheric processes since the last assessment (World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 1990), and is not a complete review of all the new information about stratospheric processes. It begins with an update of the previous assessment of polar stratospheres (WMO, 1990), followed by a discussion on the possible causes for the ozone trends at middle latitudes and on the effects of bromine and of volcanoes.

Brune, William H.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Shield fields: Concentrations of small volcanic edifices on Venus

Pre-Magellan analysis of the Venera 15/16 data indicated the existence of abundant small volcanic edifices, each less than or equal to 20 km diameter, interpreted to be predominantly shield volcanoes and occurring throughout the plains terrain, most common in equidimensional clusters. With the analysis of Magellan data, these clusters of greater than average concentration of small volcanic edifices have been called 'shield fields'. Although individual small shields can and do occur almost everywhere on the plains terrain of Venus, they most commonly occur in fields that are well-defined, predominantly equant, clusters of edifices. Major questions include why the edifices are concentrated in this way, how they relate to the source of the eruptive material, and what the possible relationship of shield fields to plains terrain is. There are three possible models for the origin of fields and small shields: (1) a field represents an 'island' of higher topography subsequently surrounded by later plains material; and (2) a field represents the area of magma reservoir.

Aubele, J. C.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Igneous and tectonic evolution of Venusian and terrestrial coronae

A great variety of tectonic and volcanic features have been documented on Venus. It is widely appreciated that there are close spatial associations among certain types of tectonic structures and some classes of volcanic flows and constructs. Coronae are endowed with a particularly rich variety of volcanism. It is thought that coupled tectonic and volcanic aspects of coronae are cogenetic manifestations of mantle plumes. An outstanding feature of most venusian coronae is their circular or elliptical shape defined by peripheral zones of fracturing and/or folding. Some coronae are composite, consisting of two or more small coronae within a larger enclosing corona, suggesting complex histories of structured diapirism analogous in some ways to salt dome tectonics. Coronae range widely in size, from smaller than 100 km to over 1000 km in diameter. Volcanic features associated with venusian coronae include lunar-like sinuous rilles, thin lava flows, cinder cone-like constructs, shield volcanos, and pancake domes. Several types of volcanic features are often situated within or near a single corona, in many instances including land-forms indicating effusions of both low- and high-viscosity lavas. In some cases stratigraphic evidence brackets emplacement of pancake domes during the period of tectonic development of the corona, thus supporting a close link between the igneous and tectonic histories of coronae. These associations suggest emplacement of huge diapirs and massive magmatic intrusions, thus producing the tectonic deformations defining these structures. Igneous differentiation of the intrusion could yield a range of lava compositions. Head and Wilson suggested a mechanism that would cause development of neutral buoyancy zones in the shallow subsurface of Venus, thereby tending to promote development of massive igneous intrusions.

Kargel, J. S.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Mantle plumes on Venus revisited

The Equatorial Highlands of Venus consist of a series of quasicircular regions of high topography, rising up to about 5 km above the mean planetary radius. These highlands are strongly correlated with positive geoid anomalies, with a peak amplitude of 120 m at Atla Regio. Shield volcanism is observed at Beta, Eistla, Bell, and Atla Regiones and in the Hathor Mons-Innini Mons-Ushas Mons region of the southern hemisphere. Volcanos have also been mapped in Phoebe Regio and flood volcanism is observed in Ovda and Thetis Regiones. Extensional tectonism is also observed in Ovda and Thetis Regiones. Extensional tectonism is also observed in many of these regions. It is now widely accepted that at least Beta, Atla, Eistla, and Bell Regiones are the surface expressions of hot, rising mantel plumes. Upwelling plumes are consistent with both the volcanism and the extensional tectonism observed in these regions. The geoid anomalies and topography of these four regions show considerable variation. Peak geoid anomalies exceed 90 m at Beta and Atla, but are only 40 m at Eistla and 24 m at Bell. Similarly, the peak topography is greater at Beta and Atla than at Eistla and Bell. Such a range of values is not surprising because terrestrial hotspot swells also have a side range of geoid anomalies and topographic uplifts. Kiefer and Hager used cylindrical axisymmetric, steady-state convection calculations to show that mantle plumes can quantitatively account for both the amplitude and the shape of the long-wavelength geoid and topography at Beta and Atla. In these models, most of the topography of these highlands is due to uplift by the vertical normal stress associated with the rising plume. Additional topography may also be present due to crustal thickening by volcanism and crustal thinning by rifting. Smrekar and Phillips have also considered the geoid and topography of plumes on Venus, but they restricted themselves to considering only the geoid-topography ratio and did not examine either the geoid and topography amplitudes separately or the shapes of anomalies.

Kiefer, Walter S.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Derivation of surface properties from Magellan altimetry data

The fit of the Hagfors model to the Magellan altimetry data provides a means to characterize the surface properties of Venus. However, the derived surface properties are only meaningful if the model provides a good representation of the data. The Hagfors model provides a good representation of the data. The Hagfors model is generally a realistic fit to surface scattering properties of a nadir-directed antenna such as the Magellan altimeter; however, some regions of the surface of Venus are poorly described by the existing model, according to the goodness of fit parameter provided on the ARCDR CD-ROMs. Poorly characterized regions need to be identified and fit to new models in order to derive more accurate surface properties for use in inferring the geological processes that affect the surface in those regions. We have compared the goodness of fit of the Hagfors model to the distribution of features across the planet, and preliminary results show a correlation between steep topographic slopes and poor fits to the standard model, as has been noticed by others. In this paper, we investigate possible relations between many classes of features and the ability of the Hagfors model to fit the observed echo profiles. In the regions that are not well characterized by existing models, we calculate new models that compensate for topographic relief in order to derive improved estimates of surface properties. Areas investigated to date span from longitude 315 through 45, at all latitudes covered by Magellan. A survey of those areas yields preliminary results that suggest that topographically high regions are well suited to the current implementation of the Hagfors model. Striking examples of such large-scale good fits are Alpha Regio, the northern edges of Lada Terra, and the southern edge of Ishtar Terra. Other features that are typically well fit are the rims of coronae such as Heng-O and the peaks of volcanos such as Gula Mons. Surprisingly, topographically low regions, such as the ubiquitous plains areas, are modeled poorly in comparison. However, this generalization has has exceptions: Lakshmi Planum is an elevated region that is not well fit compared to the rest of neighboring Ishtar, while the southern parts of topographically low Guinevere Planitia are characterized quite well by the Hagfors model. Features that are candidates for improved models are impact craters, coronae, ridges of significant scale, complex ridged terrains, moderate-sized mountains, and sharp terrain boundaries. These features are chosen because the goodness of fit is likely to be most affected either by departures from normal incidence angles or by sharp changes in terrain type within a single footprint. Most large features that are elevated with respect to their surroundings will suffer from steep slope effects, and smaller coronae and impact craters will probably suffer due to rapid changes in their appearance within a single footprint (10-20 km).

Lovell, Amy J.↗