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Zprime (M=10 TeV) to ttbar at a 100 TeV collider. Zprime decays to ttbar. Events generated with PYTHIA6 for full simulation. The sample was made for detector studies and does not have modern underlying event tune. Consider using samples generated with Pythia8.
Purpose: An implantable metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors-based dosimeter has recently been developed for the in vivo monitoring of hypofractionated radiotherapy. This DVS-HFT dosimeter is designed for fraction sizes of 340-950 cGy and can also be used for bis in die fraction monitoring. The current work reports on the testing and evaluation of this dosimeter, including both its basic characteristics as well as its performance during simulated clinical treatment plans. Methods: The authors tested the dose rate dependence of this dosimeter (300 MU/min versus 600 MU/min), the treatment time dependence (4 min per treatment versus up to 60 min per treatment), and the dose and energy dependence (6 and 18 MV irradiations of 700-900 cGy per fraction). Additionally, they irradiated the detectors in-phantom with breast and prostate hypofractionated treatments. Results: The detectors showed no significant dose rate, treatment time, energy, or dose dependence. Furthermore, the detectors were found to perform within manufacturer tolerances for all hypofractionated treatments examined, accurately reporting the measured dose (average disagreement of - 0.65%). Conclusions: These dosimeters appear well suited for in vivo monitoring of hypofractionated radiotherapy doses, and thereby, have the potential to improve patient care.
The ability to perform nondestructive assay (NDA) of fresh fuel assemblies with high precision in reasonable measurement times is significant for nuclear nonproliferation and safeguards. The current methodology used by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for NDA of fresh fuel assemblies involves a He-3 based Uranium Neutron Collar (UNCL) system, which is an active coincidence counting system designed to measure time-correlated neutron doubles from induced fissions within the assembly. The UNCL system provides an easily implementable process of quantifying the 235 U linear density of the fresh fuel assemblies; however, operational limitations of the UNCL include long assay times and adverse sensitivity to poisoned assemblies. This has engendered investigation in alternative detector materials for fast-neutron counting to rectify some of these current limitations in the UNCL. The potential improvements of using fast-neutron organic scintillators (e.g. liquid scintillators, stilbene, PSDcapable plastics, etc.) was compared directly to the original Uranium Neutron Collar (UNCL) in-detail during the initial Advanced Neutron Detection Technology Rodeo. The simulation results showed that these alternative detector materials can provide an improvement in the assay time required to reach a suitable precision due to both their lower sensitivity to the interrogation source neutrons (i.e. AmLi neutrons) and their inherently shorter coincidence gate widths. The IAEA has developed a liquid scintillator-based Fast-Neutron Collar (FNCL) as a potential replacement system for the UNCL.
Purpose: TheAlfonso et al. [Med. Phys.35, 5179–5186 (2008)] formalism for small field dosimetry proposes a set of correction factors (k{sub Q{sub c{sub l{sub i{sub n,Q{sub m{sub s{sub r}{sup f{sub c}{sub l}{sub i}{sub n},f{sub m}{sub s}{sub r}}}}}}}}}) which account for differences between the detector response in nonstandard (clinical) and machine-specific-reference fields. In this study, the Monte Carlo method was used to investigate the viability of such small field correction factors for four different detectors irradiated under a variety of conditions. Because k{sub Q{sub c{sub l{sub i{sub n,Q{sub m{sub s{sub r}{sup f{sub c}{sub l}{sub i}{sub n},f{sub m}{sub s}{sub r}}}}}}}}} values for single detector position measurements are influenced by several factors, a new theoretical formalism for integrated-detector-position [dose area product (DAP)] measurements is also presented and was tested using Monte Carlo simulations. Methods: A BEAMnrc linac model was built and validated for a Varian Clinac iX accelerator. Using the egs++ geometry package, detailed virtual models were built for four different detectors: a PTW 60012 unshielded diode, a PTW 60003 Diamond detector, a PTW 31006 PinPoint (ionization chamber), and a PTW 31018 MicroLion (liquid-filled ionization chamber). The egs-chamber code was used to investigate the variation ofk{sub Q{sub c{sub l{sub i{sub n,Q{sub m{sub s{sub r}{sup f{sub c}{sub l}{sub i}{sub n},f{sub m}{sub s}{sub r}}}}}}}}} with detector type, detector construction, field size, off-axis position, and the azimuthal angle between the detector and beam axis. Simulations were also used to consider the DAP obtained by each detector: virtual detectors and water voxels were scanned through high resolution grids of positions extending far beyond the boundaries of the fields under consideration. Results: For each detector, the correction factor (k{sub Q{sub c{sub l{sub i{sub n,Q{sub m{sub s{sub r}{sup f{sub c}{sub l}{sub i}{sub n},f{sub m}{sub s}{sub r}}}}}}}}}) was shown to depend strongly on detector off-axis position and detector azimuthal angle in addition to field size. In line with previous studies, substantial interdetector variation was also observed. However, it was demonstrated that by considering DAPs rather than single-detector-position dose measurements the high level of interdetector variation could be eliminated. Under small field conditions, mass density was found to be the principal determinant of water equivalence. Additionally, the mass densities of components outside the sensitive volumes were found to influence the detector response. Conclusions: k{sub Q{sub c{sub l{sub i{sub n,Q{sub m{sub s{sub r}{sup f{sub c}{sub l}{sub i}{sub n},f{sub m}{sub s}{sub r}}}}}}}}} values for existing detector designs depend on a host of variables and their calculation typically relies on the use of time-intensive Monte Carlo methods. Future moves toward density-compensated detector designs or DAP based protocols may simplify the methodology of small field dosimetry.
The time to simulate pp collisions in the ATLAS detector is largely dominated by the showering of electromagnetic particles in the heavy parts of the detector, especially the electromagnetic barrel and endcap calorimeters. Two procedures have been developed to accelerate the processing time of electromagnetic particles in these regions: (1) a fast shower parameterisation and (2) a frozen shower library. Both work by generating the response of the calorimeter to electrons and positrons with Geant 4, and then reintroduce the response into the simulation at runtime. In the fast shower parameterisation technique, a parameterization is tuned to single electrons and used later by simulation. In the frozen shower technique, actual showers from low-energy particles are used in the simulation. Full Geant 4 simulation is used to develop showers down to {approx} 1 GeV, at which point the shower is terminated by substituting a frozen shower. Judicious use of both techniques over the entire electromagnetic portion of the ATLAS calorimeter produces an important improvement of CPU time. We discuss the algorithms and their performance in this paper.
PurposeCumulative radiation exposure to the hands during certain interventional procedures may be high. It is important to decrease the amount of radiation to the operator due to the possibility of deterministic effects. We performed a pilot study to demonstrate a significant decrease in operator dose when using extension tubing (ET) in combination with shielding and collimation during a simulated percutaneous transhepatic cholangiogram (PTC) procedure.MethodsA whole body, anthropomorphic phantom was used to simulate the patient. A Unfors-Xi Survey detector (to measure scatter) supported by a retort stand and trolley was placed in various positions to simulate the position of hands and eyes/thyroid of an interventionalist. Radiation dose was measured simulating left and right-sided PTC punctures with and without a lead shield, and with and without ET.ResultsRegarding the radiation dose to the hands; the use of an ET reduces dose by 54 % in right-sided PTC punctures without a shield and by 91 % if used in combination with a shield. For left-sided PTC punctures, ET reduces hand dose by 75 %. The use of collimation decreases hand dose by approximately 60 %. The use of shielding reduces dose to the eyes/thyroid by 98 %.ConclusionsThe dose to the hands can be significantly reduced with the appropriate use of a shield, ET, and tight collimation. The use of a shield is paramount to reduce dose to the eyes/thyroid. It is important for interventionalists to adhere to radiation protective practice considering the potential deterministic effects during a lifelong career.
Purpose: Monte Carlo (MC) simulation is an important tool to solve radiotherapy and medical imaging problems. Low computational efficiency hinders its wide applications. Conventionally, MC is performed in a particle-by -particle fashion. The lack of control on particle trajectory is a main cause of low efficiency in some applications. Take cone beam CT (CBCT) projection simulation as an example, significant amount of computations were wasted on transporting photons that do not reach the detector. To solve this problem, we propose an innovative MC simulation scheme with a path-by-path sampling method. Methods: Consider a photon path starting at the x-ray source. After going through a set of interactions, it ends at the detector. In the proposed scheme, we sampled an entire photon path each time. Metropolis-Hasting algorithm was employed to accept/reject a sampled path based on a calculated acceptance probability, in order to maintain correct relative probabilities among different paths, which are governed by photon transport physics. We developed a package gMMC on GPU with this new scheme implemented. The performance of gMMC was tested in a sample problem of CBCT projection simulation for a homogeneous object. The results were compared to those obtained using gMCDRR, a GPU-based MC tool with the conventional particle-by-particle simulation scheme. Results: Calculated scattered photon signals in gMMC agreed with those from gMCDRR with a relative difference of 3%. It took 3.1 hr. for gMCDRR to simulate 7.8e11 photons and 246.5 sec for gMMC to simulate 1.4e10 paths. Under this setting, both results attained the same ∼2% statistical uncertainty. Hence, a speed-up factor of ∼45.3 was achieved by this new path-by-path simulation scheme, where all the computations were spent on those photons contributing to the detector signal. Conclusion: We innovatively proposed a novel path-by-path simulation scheme that enabled a significant efficiency enhancement for MC particle transport simulations.
When multiple neutrons are emitted in a fission event they are correlated in both energy and their relative angle, which may impact the design of safeguards equipment and other instrumentation for non-proliferation applications. The most recent release of MCNP 6 . 2 contains the capability to simulate correlated fission neutrons using the event generators CGMF and FREYA . These radiation transport simulations will be post-processed by the detector response code, DRiFT , and compared directly to correlated fission measurements. DRiFT has been previously compared to single detector measurements, its capabilities have been recently expanded with correlated fission simulations in mind. Finally, this paper details updates to DRiFT specific to correlated fission measurements, including tracking source particle energy of all detector events (and non-events), expanded output formats, and digitizer waveform generation.
The modeling of the detectability of special nuclear material (SNM) at ports and border crossings requires accurate knowledge of the background radiation at those locations. Background radiation originates from two main sources, cosmic and terrestrial. Cosmic background is produced by high-energy galactic cosmic rays (GCR) entering the atmosphere inducing a cascade of particles that eventually impact the earth's surface. The solar modulation potential represents one of the primary inputs to modeling cosmic background radiation. Usoskin et al. formally define solar modulation potential as 'the mean energy loss [per unit charge, in units of megavolts (MV),] of a cosmic ray particle inside the heliosphere...'. Modulation potential, a function of elevation, location, and time, shares an inverse relationship with cosmic background radiation. As a result, radiation detector background thresholds require adjustment to account for differing background levels, caused in part by differing solar modulations. Failure to do this can result in higher rates of false positives and failed detection of SNM during low and high levels of solar modulation potential, respectively. This study focuses on solar modulation's time dependence and seeks the best method to predict modulation for future dates. The best method will be incorporated into NINESIM, a discrete event simulator. An in-depth description of NINESIM is beyond the scope and purpose of this paper. (authors)
A Subcritical Copper-Reflected α-phase Plutonium (SCRαP) integral benchmark experiment is proposed where multiplication will be approximated using correlated neutron data from a detector system consisting of {sup 3}He tubes inside polyethylene. Measurements will be performed on various subcritical experimental configurations consisting of a weapons-grade plutonium sphere surrounded by different Cu thicknesses. In addition to the proposed base experimental configurations with Cu, additional configurations are planned with the plutonium ball nested in various thicknesses of interleaved polyethylene spherical shells mixed in with the Cu shells. The polyethylene is intended to provide fast neutron moderation and reflection, resulting in additional measurements with differing multiplication, spectra, and nuclear data sensitivity. The proposed experiments will performed at the National Criticality Experiments Research Center (NCERC). NCERC is home to a 4.5-kg α-phase stainless steel clad plutonium sphere that is referred to as the BeRP (Beryllium-Reflected Plutonium) ball due to its historical use in a beryllium-reflected critical experiment. In 2014, similar subcritical measurements were performed with the BeRP ball surrounded by nickel and tungsten. The nickel-reflected measurements were documented as a benchmark evaluation which was accepted by the International Criticality Safety Benchmark Evaluation Project (ICSBEP). Similar to past measurements, the proposed work will help both identify deficiencies and quantify uncertainties in nuclear data and validate computational methods related to neutron multiplication inference for subcritical benchmark evaluations. Monte Carlo simulations were performed for the preliminary design of a subcritical Copper-Reflected - phase Plutonium (SCRP) integral benchmark experiment. Specifically, MCNP{sup R} version 6 was used to determine the k{sub eff} and associated nuclear data sensitivities for different preliminary configurations (reflector thickness, material type). The final experimental design process will include continuous-energy nuclear data sensitivity analysis. This will help assess the potential impact of this integral measurement as it relates to international efforts to continuously improve current libraries (ENDF, JEFF, JENDL etc) that still tend to over/under-estimate the measured results of integral experiments, sometimes significantly. Deficiencies in underlying nuclear data quantities such as Nubar have been shown to have an effect on inferred values from subcritical measurements as well. The proposed experiments and subsequent computational validation will help identify such deficiencies. It will also help validate new nuclear data evaluations, including one for Cu that was recently performed in the resolved region up to 100 MeV for {sup 65}Cu and {sup 63}Cu which is expected to improve Cu-related benchmark simulation performance. The final experimental design phase will also include simulation results that will incorporate the detectors that will be used for the subcritical measurements. For the benchmark portion of the measurements, the main detectors that are being considered are portable neutron multiplicity counters made up of {sup 3}He tubes embedded in polyethylene and lined with cadmium. These detectors employ a data acquisition system that produces list-mode data (correlated information where each event is listed sequentially) that can be analyzed using the Feynman variance-to-mean method. Other detector systems including SNAP (single {sup 3}He tube embedded in polyethylene), and a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector are being considered for supplementary measurements only and are not intended to be used for the final benchmark measurements. Decoupling the supplementary detectors from the system eliminates any contribution to the total system multiplication, and greatly simplifies the final computational benchmark model. Therefore, an optimization of the portable neutron multiplicity counter placement in the benchmark measurements will be performed to ensure that there is minimal contribution to the total system multiplication. In addition, new temperature measurement techniques and hardware will be explored. (authors)
Here, the conceptual design of the BRIKEN neutron detector at the radioactive ion beam factory (RIBF) of the RIKEN Nishina Center is reported. The BRIKEN setup is a complex system aimed at detecting heavy-ion implants, β particles, γ rays and β-delayed neutrons. The whole setup includes the Advanced Implantation Detection Array (AIDA), two HPGe Clover detectors and up to 166 3 He-filled counters embedded in a high-density polyethylene moderator. The design is quite complex due to the large number and different types of 3 He-tubes involved and the additional constraints introduced by the ancillary detectors for charged particles and γ rays. This article reports on a novel methodology developed for the conceptual design and optimisation of the 3 He-counter array, aiming for the best possible performance in terms of neutron detection. The algorithm is based on a geometric representation of two selected detector parameters of merit, namely, the average neutron detection efficiency and the efficiency flatness as a function of a reduced number of geometric variables. The response of the neutron detector is obtained from a systematic Monte Carlo simulation implemented in GEANT4. The robustness of the algorithm allowed us to design a versatile detection system, which operated in hybrid mode includes the full neutron counter and two clover detectors for high-precision gamma spectroscopy. In addition, the system can be reconfigured into a compact mode by removing the clover detectors and re-arranging the 3 He tubes in order to maximize the neutron detection performance. Both operation modes shows a rather flat and high average efficiency. In summary, we have designed a system which shows an average efficiency for hybrid mode ( 3 He tubes + clovers) of 68.6% and 64% for neutron energies up to 1 and 5 MeV, respectively. For compact mode (only 3 He tubes), the average efficiency is 75.7% and 71% for neutron energies up to 1 and 5 MeV, respectively. The performance of the BRIKEN detection system has been also quantified by means of Monte Carlo simulations with different neutron energy distributions.
The cosmic-ray-induced neutron background at ground level has been measured and simulated in conjunction with EJ-309 organic liquid scintillators with an approximate deposited energy range of 0.5–6 MeV. Specifically, the pulse height distributions, net neutron count rates, and angular dependences were obtained. The simulations were carried out using the Monte Carlo transport code MCNPX-PoliMi combined with the (Cosmic-Ray Shower Generator) CRY source subroutine that returns secondary particles produced by cosmic rays. A scaling formula from literature was also implemented in the simulation. The angular dependence of the neutron count rate was measured by collimating the liquid scintillator with polyethylene to attain 18° angular resolution from 0° downwards to 72° horizontally. The neutron count rate was measured to be 23.10±1.69 h -1 sr -1 at 0°, and 7.20±0.78 h -1 sr -1 at 72°. The simulations and measurements compare well and show similar cosine anisotropy for the angular distribution. Finally, the study thus shows that the neutron background response in detector systems can be efficiently and accurately simulated using the procedures described.
Multiple different groups at Los Alamos National Laboratory have a cited interest in understanding the effects of ionizing radiation in materials. Of especial interest to the ISR division is understanding the effects in materials that are used in the space environment, where radiation is omnipresent and impossible to fully shield from. Development is under way to simulate the effects of radiation damage in detectors and electronics, primarily with particle transport codes such as Geant4 and RAMPART, a code that provides a user friendly interface to Geant4. However, these simulations need benchmarking to experimental tests, some of which have been performed at a variety of small electron accelerator facilities. One of these facilities is the Linear Electron Accelerator at the University of Maryland Radiation Facilities. This facility can provide electron beams on the order of 100 mA delivered in tight macropulse bunches, which allows for experiments where the behavior of electronics is monitored as a function of pulse number. While the beam rates per macropulse of this accelerator is monitored during an experiment via a current pick-off connected to a large graphite beamstop, the energy distribution of this electron beam is not measured during the experiment and has not been well characterized. The energy distribution of the beam is pertinent for these types of experiments, since dose is directly related to energy deposited in a medium. Further, these experiments are performed in open air and sample placement in the room can dictate what dose rate they receive per macropulse. We have created simulated dosemaps for the UMD vault room, but these simulations assume a given energy of the beam, both for calculating the dose and to simulate how much the beam diverges in the air. There have been two attempts now to characterize this accelerator beam energy with a plate type spectrometer, including the most recent experiment earlier this year to quantify the beam energy distribution. These results will also be compared to a dosimetry experiment performed by collaborators at the UMD facility, the details of which are described in Reference. Understanding the electron beam energy is important for future experiments, because the energy directly impacts the dose and radiation damage given to a sample and is important for properly simulating the electron beam when comparing simulation to experiment.
We present the methodology and results of the on-sky responsivity calibration of the South Pole Telescope Shirokoff Line Intensity Mapper (SPT-SLIM). SPT-SLIM is a pathfinder line intensity mapping experiment utilizing the on-chip spectrometer technology, and was first deployed during the 2024-2025 Austral Summer season on the South Pole Telescope. During the two-week on-sky operation of SPT-SLIM, we performed periodic measurements of the detector response as a function of the telescope elevation angle. Combining these data with atmospheric opacity measurements from an on-site atmospheric tipping radiometer, simulated South Pole atmospheric spectra, and measured detector spectral responses, we construct estimates for the responsivity of SPT-SLIM detectors to sky loading. We then use this model to calibrate observations of the moon taken by SPT-SLIM, cross-checking the result against the known brightness temperature of the Moon as a function of its phase.
Purpose: Energy resolving detectors provide more than one spectral measurement in one image acquisition. The purpose of this study is to investigate, with simulation, the ability to decompose four materials using energy discriminating detectors and least squares minimization techniques. Methods: Three least squares parameter estimation decomposition techniques were investigated for four-material breast imaging tasks in the image domain. The first technique treats the voxel as if it consisted of fractions of all the materials. The second method assumes that a voxel primarily contains one material and divides the decomposition process into segmentation and quantification tasks. The third is similar to the second method but a calibration was used. The simulated computed tomography (CT) system consisted of an 80 kVp spectrum and a CdZnTe (CZT) detector that could resolve the x-ray spectrum into five energy bins. A postmortem breast specimen was imaged with flat panel CT to provide a model for the digital phantoms. Hydroxyapatite (HA) (50, 150, 250, 350, 450, and 550 mg/ml) and iodine (4, 12, 20, 28, 36, and 44 mg/ml) contrast elements were embedded into the glandular region of the phantoms. Calibration phantoms consisted of a 30/70 glandular-to-adipose tissue ratio with embedded HA (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 mg/ml) and iodine (5, 15, 25, 35, and 45 mg/ml). The x-ray transport process was simulated where the Beer-Lambert law, Poisson process, and CZT absorption efficiency were applied. Qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the decomposition techniques were performed and compared. The effect of breast size was also investigated. Results: The first technique decomposed iodine adequately but failed for other materials. The second method separated the materials but was unable to quantify the materials. With the addition of a calibration, the third technique provided good separation and quantification of hydroxyapatite, iodine, glandular, and adipose tissues. Quantification with this technique was accurate with errors of 9.83% and 6.61% for HA and iodine, respectively. Calibration at one point (one breast size) showed increased errors as the mismatch in breast diameters between calibration and measurement increased. A four-point calibration successfully decomposed breast diameter spanning the entire range from 8 to 20 cm. For a 14 cm breast, errors were reduced from 5.44% to 1.75% and from 6.17% to 3.27% with the multipoint calibration for HA and iodine, respectively. Conclusions: The results of the simulation study showed that a CT system based on CZT detectors in conjunction with least squares minimization technique can be used to decompose four materials. The calibrated least squares parameter estimation decomposition technique performed the best, separating and accurately quantifying the concentrations of hydroxyapatite and iodine.
New Small Wheel (NSW) is a major detector upgrade project of the ATLAS muon spectrometer for the LHC luminosity upgrade. NSW comprises sTGC and Micromegas as muon tracking detectors of high rate capability, and front- and back-end electronics for upgrading the muon level-1 trigger. Detailed simulation of the detectors and the electronics has been developed and used for the study of expected performance. An overview of the NSW system and some results of the trigger performance with the Micromegas are presented.
We report a new generation of gated x-ray detectors at the National Ignition Facility has brought faster, enhanced imaging capabilities. Their performance is currently limited by the amount of signal they can be operated with before space charge effects in their electron tube start to compromise their temporal and spatial response. We present a technique to characterize this phenomenon and apply it to a prototype of such systems, the Single Line Of Sight camera. Results of this characterization are used to benchmark Particle In Cell simulations of the electrons drifting inside the detector, which are found to well reproduce experimental data. These simulations are then employed to predict the optimum photon flux to the camera, with the goal to increase the quality of the images obtained on an experimental campaign while preventing the appearance of deleterious effects. They also offer some insight into some of the improvements that can be brought to the new pulse-dilation systems being built at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
In the first 10 seconds of a core-collapse supernova, almost all of its progenitor's gravitational potential, O(10 53 ergs), is carried away in the form of neutrinos. These neutrinos, with O(10 MeV) kinetic energy, can interact via coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering (CEνNS) depositing O(1 keV) in detectors. In this work we describe the performances of low-background dark matter detectors, such as LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ), optimized for detecting low-energy depositions, in detecting these neutrino interactions. For instance, a 27 M ⊙ supernova at 10 kpc is expected to produce ~350 neutrino interactions in the 7-tonne liquid xenon active volume of LZ. Based on the LS220 EoS neutrino flux model for a SN, the Noble Element Simulation Technique (NEST), and predicted CEνNS cross-sections for xenon, to study energy deposition and detection of SN neutrinos in LZ. Here we simulate the response of the LZ data acquisition system (DAQ) and demonstrate its capability and limitations in handling this interaction rate. We present an overview of the LZ detector, focusing on the benefits of liquid xenon for supernova neutrino detection. We discuss energy deposition and detector response simulations and their results. We present an analysis technique to reconstruct the total number of neutrinos and the time of the supernova core bounce.