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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

TTDAQ: A Continuous Flow, Timing and Trigger DAQ System

Final Scientific/Technical Report for DOE Award DE-SC0019581, “TTDAQ: A Continuous Flow, Timing and Trigger DAQ System.” The report summarizes Telluric Labs’ Phase II STTR work developing silicon-photonic building blocks for a software-defined, continuous-flow, trigger-less data acquisition system for next-generation high-energy and nuclear-physics detectors. The project focused on radiation-hard photonic integrated circuits, remote optical illumination, dense wavelength-division multiplexing, and a differential microring-resonator transceiver architecture designed to improve high-speed optical link stability and bandwidth. The report describes project objectives, technical accomplishments, AIM Photonics tape-outs, bench characterization, radiation-hardness testing, deferred integration work, and potential applications beyond physics readout.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solar Energy: Bans or Moratoriums (2022)

This dataset identifies counties and municipalities that had a solar energy ban or moratorium as of April 2022. A TIF data file and a PNG map of the data are provided, showing areas where solar energy bans or moratoriums exist across the contiguous United States. For further details and citation, please refer to the publication linked below: Lopez, Anthony, Pavlo Pinchuk, Michael Gleason, Wesley Cole, Trieu Mai, Travis Williams, Owen Roberts, Marie Rivers, Mike Bannister, Sophie-Min Thomson, Gabe Zuckerman, and Brian Sergi. 2024. Solar Photovoltaics and Land-Based Wind Technical Potential and Supply Curves for the Contiguous United States: 2023 Edition. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-6A20-87843.

Array↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solar PV Water Setbacks: Ordinances (2022) and Extrapolated Trends

This dataset represents solar energy setback requirements from bodies of water based on county ordinances as of April 2022. A setback requirement is a minimum distance from water that an energy project may be developed, and these varied widely across the counties in which they existed. Two versions are provided: one reflecting only the county ordinances and another incorporating extrapolated trends. In the extrapolated version, a default setback of 30 meters was applied in counties without specific water setback regulations. A TIF data file and a PNG map of the data are provided for both versions, showing areas where solar energy is prohibited or permitted across the contiguous United States. For further details and citation, please refer to the publication linked below: Lopez, Anthony, Pavlo Pinchuk, Michael Gleason, Wesley Cole, Trieu Mai, Travis Williams, Owen Roberts, Marie Rivers, Mike Bannister, Sophie-Min Thomson, Gabe Zuckerman, and Brian Sergi. 2024. Solar Photovoltaics and Land-Based Wind Technical Potential and Supply Curves for the Contiguous United States: 2023 Edition. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-6A20-87843.

Array↗
NASA NTRS1985

Commerical use of space - Status and prospects

The development of commercial enterprises in space is discussed. The convenience and cost-effectiveness of satellites for communications are examined; satellite communications is an established industry and continues to grow. Meteorological satellites and remote sensing satellite systems (Landsat and SPOT) are being utilized to collect earth resources data. The development of materials processing facilities in space is studied. Current and proposed systems for transporting payloads to space and space lab facilities are investigated. The advantages a space station will provide to communications, earth resources, and materials processing are analyzed. The role of governments in the commercialization of space is described.

Lundquist, C. A.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Ion Irradiation Experiments on the Murchison CM2 Carbonaceous Chondrite: Simulating Space Weathering of Primitive Asteroids

Remote sensing observations show that space weathering processes affect all airless bodies in the Solar System to some degree. Sample analyses and lab experiments provide insights into the chemical, spectroscopic and mineralogic effects of space weathering and aid in the interpretation of remote- sensing data. For example, analyses of particles returned from the S-type asteroid Itokawa by the Hayabusa mission revealed that space-weathering on that body was dominated by interactions with the solar wind acting on LL ordinary chondrite-like materials [1, 2]. Understanding and predicting how the surface regoliths of primitive carbonaceous asteroids respond to space weathering processes is important for future sample return missions (Hayabusa 2 and OSIRIS-REx) that are targeting objects of this type. Here, we report the results of our preliminary ion irradiation experiments on a hydrated carbonaceous chondrite with emphasis on microstructural and infrared spectral changes.

Keller, L. P.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Contamination Impact of Station Brush Fire on Cleanroom Facilities

Brush and forest fires, both naturally occurring and anthropogenic in origin, in proximity to space flight hardware processing facilities raise concerns about the threat of contamination resulting from airborne particulate and molecular components of smoke. Perceptions of the severity of the threat are possibly heightened by the high sensitivity of the human sense of smell to some components present in the smoke of burning vegetation.On August 26th, 2009, a brushfire broke out north of Pasadena, California, two miles from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The Station Fire destroyed over 160,000 acres, coming within a few hundred yards of JPL. Smoke concentrations on Lab were very heavy over several days. All Lab operations were halted, and measures were taken to protect personnel, critical hardware, and facilities. Evaluation of real-time cleanroom monitoring data, visualinspection of facilities, filter systems, and analysis of surface cleanliness samples revealed facility environments andhardware were minimally effected.Outside air quality easily exceeded Class Ten Million. Prefilters captured most large ash and soot; multi-stage filtration greatly minimized the impact on the HEPA/ULPA filters. Air quality in HEPA filtered spacecraft assembly cleanrooms remained within Class 10,000 specification throughout. Surface cleanliness was inimally affected, as large particles were effectively removed from the airstream, and sub-micron particles have extremely long settling rates. Approximate particulate fallout within facilities was 0.00011% area coverage/day compared to 0.00038% area coverage/day during normal operations. Deposition of condensable airborne components, as measured in real time, peaked at approximately1.0 ng/cm2/day compared to 0.05 ng/cm2/day nominal.

airborne particulate contamination↗
NASA NTRS2017

A UAV-Based Fog Collector Design for Fine-Scale Aerobiological Sampling

Airborne microbes are found throughout the troposphere and into the stratosphere. Knowing how the activity of airborne microorganisms can alter water, carbon, and other geochemical cycles is vital to a full understanding of local and global ecosystems. Just as on the land or in the ocean, atmospheric regions vary in habitability; the underlying geochemical, climatic, and ecological dynamics must be characterized at different scales to be effectively modeled. Most aerobiological studies have focused on a high level: 'How high are airborne microbes found?' and 'How far can they travel?' Most fog and cloud water studies collect from stationary ground stations (point) or along flight transects (1D). To complement and provide context for this data, we have designed a UAV-based modified fog and cloud water collector to retrieve 4D-resolved samples for biological and chemical analysis.Our design uses a passive impacting collector hanging from a rigid rod suspended between two multi-rotor UAVs. The suspension design reduces the effect of turbulence and potential for contamination from the UAV downwash. The UAVs are currently modeled in a leader-follower configuration, taking advantage of recent advances in modular UAVs, UAV swarming, and flight planning.The collector itself is a hydrophobic mesh. Materials including Tyvek, PTFE, nylon, and polypropylene monofilament fabricated via laser cutting, CNC knife, or 3D printing were characterized for droplet collection efficiency using a benchtop atomizer and particle counter. Because the meshes can be easily and inexpensively fabricated, a set can be pre-sterilized and brought to the field for 'hot swapping' to decrease cross-contamination between flight sessions or use as negative controls.An onboard sensor and logging system records the time and location of each sample; when combined with flight tracking data, the samples can be resolved into a 4D volumetric map of the fog bank. Collected samples can be returned to the lab for a variety of analyses. Based on a review of existing flight studies, we have identified ion chromatography, metagenomic sequencing, cell staining and quantification, and ATP quantification as high-priority assays for implementation. Support for specific toxicology assays, such as methylmercury quantification, is also planned.

Design↗
NASA NTRS2016

A UAV-Based Fog Collector Design for Fine-Scale Aerobiological Sampling

Airborne microbes are found throughout the troposphere and into the stratosphere. Knowing how the activity of airborne microorganisms can alter water, carbon, and other geochemical cycles is vital to a full understanding of local and global ecosystems. Just as on the land or in the ocean, atmospheric regions vary in habitability; the underlying geochemical, climatic, and ecological dynamics must be characterized at different scales to be effectively modeled. Most aerobiological studies have focused on a high level: 'How high are airborne microbes found?' and 'How far can they travel?' Most fog and cloud water studies collect from stationary ground stations (point) or along flight transects (1D). To complement and provide context for this data, we have designed a UAV-based modified fog and cloud water collector to retrieve 4D-resolved samples for biological and chemical analysis.Our design uses a passive impacting collector hanging from a rigid rod suspended between two multi-rotor UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles). The suspension design reduces the effect of turbulence and potential for contamination from the UAV downwash. The UAVs are currently modeled in a leader-follower configuration, taking advantage of recent advances in modular UAVs, UAV swarming, and flight planning.The collector itself is a hydrophobic mesh. Materials including Tyvek, PTFE, nylon, and polypropylene monofilament fabricated via laser cutting, CNC knife, or 3D printing were characterized for droplet collection efficiency using a benchtop atomizer and particle counter. Because the meshes can be easily and inexpensively fabricated, a set can be pre-sterilized and brought to the field for 'hot swapping' to decrease cross-contamination between flight sessions or use as negative controls.An onboard sensor and logging system records the time and location of each sample; when combined with flight tracking data, the samples can be resolved into a 4D volumetric map of the fog bank. Collected samples can be returned to the lab for a variety of analyses. Based on a review of existing flight studies, we have identified ion chromatography, metagenomic sequencing, cell staining and quantification, and ATP quantification as high-priority assays for implementation. Support for specific toxicology assays, such as methyl-mercury quantification, is also planned.

Design↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Supporting Exploration Missions by Enabling Exploration Mission System Software

Future exploration missions will consist of a multitude of data sources, systems, and operators collaborating to complete mission objectives. Presently, NASA is instantiating the contractual mechanisms, such as the xEVAS and HLS contracts, to produce these mission assets. Architectural planning is also underway to establish the networking protocols and infrastructure to digitally create and connect mission elements, such as LunaNET. However, without new horizontally integrated data systems, these advancements will be limited in their ability to get mission data appropriately integrated into the plan, train, fly, explore workflow of the operations workforce. Here we describe several mission system software development efforts underway that are designed to support human spaceflight missions. We describe the current iterations of a suite of tools to support EVA procedure authoring and execution, for both ISS and Artemis missions, as well as a software solution to establish and interact with mission context and data products. These tools have been developed iteratively and continue to be tested in several NASA facilities such as the Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL), Artemis field testing, and in present-day International Space Station (ISS) operations on orbit. Our solutions demonstrate how software development can be aligned with ongoing operations development activities to discover the features that best support future human spaceflight missions.

EVA Mission System Software↗
DOE OSTI2023

Air Source Heat Pumps in Very Cold Climates

Air source heat pumps (ASHPs) in heating mode use a refrigeration cycle to remove heat from the outside air and transfer it into a building. Therefore, ASHPs have the potential to save energy compared to conventional heat sources that create the heat as opposed to transferring it from outside. Many cold climate ASHPs available on the market today can operate at outside temperatures of -25 degrees C (-13 degrees F) or even lower. As a result of technological advances and other factors, there is growing interest in ASHPs in cold climates, including very cold regions such as Alaska. However, guidance on the selection, installation, and operation of ASHPs in these very cold climates is limited, as significant data gaps exist regarding the performance of ASHPs in very cold environments. To address these data gaps and guide future innovations, our research team has studied the field performance of several ASHP installations in Alaska and done lab evaluations of several ASHP models using a cold chamber. While a cold chamber cannot fully reflect field conditions, it allowed for changing one variable at a time and gaining additional understanding of the behavior of ASHPs that would be difficult to gain from field studies only. This study focused on two main variables: the temperature in the chamber (representing the outdoor temperature) and the level of thermal loading of the ASHP. The results from the field as well as the lab show that ASHPs can operate with relatively high efficiency even in very cold climates if used in appropriate situations and in an appropriate way. It was found that not only the outside temperature, but also the level of thermal loading is a significant factor affecting the ASHP efficiency and needs to be carefully considered when sizing and operating ASHPs in very cold climates.

air source heat pump↗
DOE OSTI2023

Validation of Hadron Mass Correction Schemes in Deep Inelastic Scattering at Low Energy Transfer

One method of describing the quark-gluon of the structure proton relies on factorizing its cross-section into a process-dependent short distance element and an independent long distance element that quantifies the quark and gluon momentum distributions within the proton. This research focuses on validating the kinematic range at which factorization theorems still accurately describe the cross-section, in particular for events that simulate scattering on large momentum quarks, that are sensitive to the details of the color mechanism. In this regime, effects which otherwise scale away at large energies, become non-negligible at low energies. The goal of this research is to assess the viability of an extended version of ?collinear factorization? recently proposed by J. Guerrero and A. Accardi, which includes kinematic corrections at quark level, known as ?hadron mass corrections?, to account for the masses of the quarks and the target. To accomplish this, deep inelastic scattering events are simulated using a realistic model of deep inelastic scattering, in which one may analytically calculate both the structure functions and the quark distribution functions. These simulated experiments are then used to test the viability of the proposed factorization theorem by fitting the quark distributions and comparing these to the analytically calculable ones. It is found that the viability of hadron mass corrections in low energy scattering experiments, such as those at Jefferson Lab, extends beyond the kinematic range suggested by analytic calculations alone, provided that residual higher twist corrections are simultaneously fitted to the data.

Krause, Andrew↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electronic Visualization Laboratory's 50th Anniversary Retrospective: Look to the Future, Build on the Past

September 2023 marks the 50th anniversary of the Electronic Visualization Laboratory (EVL) at University of Illinois Chicago (UIC). EVL's introduction of the CAVE Automatic Virtual Environment in 1992, the first widely replicated, projection-based, walk-in, virtual-reality (VR) system in the world, put EVL at the forefront of collaborative, immersive data exploration and analytics. However, the journey did not begin then. Since its founding in 1973, EVL has been developing tools and techniques for real-time, interactive visualizations—pillars of VR. But EVL's culture is also relevant to its successes, as it has always been an interdisciplinary lab that fosters teamwork, where each person's expertise contributes to the development of the necessary tools, hardware, system software, applications, and human interface models to solve problems. Over the years, as multidisciplinary collaborations evolved and advanced scientific instruments and data resources were distributed globally, the need to access and share data and visualizations while working with colleagues, local and remote, synchronous and asynchronous, also became important fields of study. This paper is a retrospective of EVL's past 50 years that surveys the many networked, immersive, collaborative visualization and VR systems and applications it developed and deployed, as well as lessons learned and future plans.

Johnson, Andrew E.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Opportunities and Challenges from Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for the Advancement of Science, Technology, and the Office of Science Missions

In February 2019, the President signed Executive Order 13859, Maintaining American Leadership in Artificial Intelligence. This order launched the American Artificial Intelligence Initiative, a concerted effort to promote and protect AI technology and innovation in the United States. The Initiative implements a government-wide strategy in collaboration and engagement with the private sector, academia, the public, and like-minded international partners. Among other actions, key directives in the Initiative called for Federal agencies to: Prioritize AI research and development investments, Enhance access to high-quality cyberinfrastructure and data, Ensure that the US maintains an international leadership role in the development of technical standards for AI, and Provide education and training opportunities to prepare the American workforce for the new era of AI. The mission of the Department of Energy (DOE) is to ensure America’s security and prosperity by addressing its energy, environmental, and nuclear challenges through transformative science and technology solutions. In terms of Science and Innovation, the DOE’s mission is to maintain a vibrant US effort in science and engineering as a cornerstone of our economic prosperity with clear leadership in strategic areas. From July to October in 2019, the Argonne, Oak Ridge, and Berkeley National Laboratories hosted a series of four AI for Science Town Hall meetings in Chicago, Oak Ridge, Berkeley, and Washington DC. The four meetings were attended by over 1300 scientists from the 17 DOE Labs, 39 companies, and over 90 universities. The goal of the Town Hall series was ‘to examine scientific opportunities in the areas of artificial intelligence, Big Data, and high-performance computing (HPC) in the next decade, and to capture the big ideas, grand challenges, and next steps to realizing these.’ The discussions at the meetings were captured in the final report of the AI for Science Town Hall meetings.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

What you get is not always what you see—pitfalls in solar array assessment using overhead imagery

Effective integration planning for small, distributed solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays into electric power grids requires access to high quality data: the location and power capacity of individual solar PV arrays. Unfortunately, national databases of small-scale solar PV do not exist; those that do are limited in their spatial resolution, typically aggregated up to state or national levels. While several promising approaches for solar PV detection have been published, strategies for evaluating the performance of these models are often highly heterogeneous from study to study. The resulting comparison of these methods for practical applications for energy assessments becomes challenging and may imply that the reported performance evaluations overly optimistic. The heterogeneity comes in many forms, each of which we explore in this work: the degree of diversity of the locations and sensors (e.g. different satellites, aerial photography) from which the training and validation data originate, the validation of ground truth (manual annotation of imagery vs known solar PV locations), the level of spatial aggregation (e.g. array-level vs regional estimates), and inconsistencies in the training and validation datasets (e.g. different datasets are used for each study and those data are not always made accessible). For each, we discuss emerging practices from the literature to address them or suggest directions of future research. As part of our investigation, we evaluate solar PV identification performance in two large regions: the entire state of Connecticut and the city of San Diego, CA. In Connecticut, we also use 33,114 known parcel-level solar PV installations from Berkeley Lab’s Tracking the Sun dataset to evaluate parcel-level performance and evaluate capacity estimates using 169 municipalities. We also make our code (which we call SolarMapper), pre-trained models, training data, and predictions publicly available and provide a web portal for interactively inspecting each prediction that was made. Here our findings suggest that traditional performance evaluation of the automated identification of solar PV from satellite imagery may be optimistic due to common limitations in the validation process. The takeaways from this work are intended to inform and catalyze the large-scale practical application of automated solar PV assessment techniques by energy researchers and professionals.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Explorations of the nonheme high-valent iron-oxo landscape: crystal structure of a synthetic complex with an [Fe IV 2 (μ-O) 2 ] diamond core relevant to the chemistry of sMMOH

Methanotrophic bacteria utilize methane monooxygenase (MMO) to carry out the first step in metabolizing methane. The soluble enzymes employ a hydroxylase component (sMMOH) with a nonheme diiron active site that activates O 2 and generates a powerful oxidant capable of converting methane to methanol. It is proposed that the diiron(II) center in the reduced enzyme reacts with O 2 to generate a diferric-peroxo intermediate called P that then undergoes O–O cleavage to convert into a diiron(IV) derivative called Q, which carries out methane hydroxylation. Most (but not all) of the spectroscopic data of Q accumulated by various groups to date favor the presence of an Fe IV 2 (μ-O) 2 unit with a diamond core. The Que lab has had a long-term interest in making synthetic analogs of iron enzyme intermediates. To this end, the first crystal structure of a complex with a Fe III Fe IV (μ-O) 2 diamond core was reported in 1999, which exhibited an Fe∙∙∙Fe distance of 2.683(1) Å. Now more than 20 years later, a complex with an Fe IV 2 (μ-O) 2 diamond core has been synthesized in sufficient purity to allow diffraction-quality crystals to be grown. Finally, its crystal structure has been solved, revealing an Fe∙∙∙Fe distance of 2.711(4) Å for comparison with structural data for related complexes with lower iron oxidation states.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS2015

Goddard's Astrophysics Science Divsion Annual Report 2014

The Astrophysics Science Division (ASD, Code 660) is one of the world's largest and most diverse astronomical organizations. Space flight missions are conceived, built and launched to observe the entire range of the electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma rays to centimeter waves. In addition, experiments are flown to gather data on high-energy cosmic rays, and plans are being made to detect gravitational radiation from space-borne missions. To enable these missions, we have vigorous programs of instrument and detector development. Division scientists also carry out preparatory theoretical work and subsequent data analysis and modeling. In addition to space flight missions, we have a vibrant suborbital program with numerous sounding rocket and balloon payloads in development or operation. The ASD is organized into five labs: the Astroparticle Physics Lab, the X-ray Astrophysics Lab, the Gravitational Astrophysics Lab, the Observational Cosmology Lab, and the Exoplanets and Stellar Astrophysics Lab. The High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC) is an Office at the Division level. Approximately 400 scientists and engineers work in ASD. Of these, 80 are civil servant scientists, while the rest are resident university-based scientists, contractors, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and administrative staff. We currently operate the Swift Explorer mission and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. In addition, we provide data archiving and operational support for the XMM mission (jointly with ESA) and the Suzaku mission (with JAXA). We are also a partner with Caltech on the NuSTAR mission. The Hubble Space Telescope Project is headquartered at Goddard, and ASD provides Project Scientists to oversee operations at the Space Telescope Science Institute. Projects in development include the Neutron Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) mission, an X-ray timing experiment for the International Space Station; the Transiting Exoplanet Sky Survey (TESS) Explorer mission, in collaboration with MIT (Ricker, PI); the Soft X-ray Spectrometer (SXS) for the Astro-H mission in collaboration with JAXA, and the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), the highest ranked mission in the 2010 decadal survey, is in a pre-phase A study, and we are supplying study scientists for that mission.

Caltech on the NuSTAR mission↗
NASA NTRS2009

The Deep Impact Network Experiment Operations Center Monitor and Control System

The Interplanetary Overlay Network (ION) software at JPL is an implementation of Delay/Disruption Tolerant Networking (DTN) which has been proposed as an interplanetary protocol to support space communication. The JPL Deep Impact Network (DINET) is a technology development experiment intended to increase the technical readiness of the JPL implemented ION suite. The DINET Experiment Operations Center (EOC) developed by JPL's Protocol Technology Lab (PTL) was critical in accomplishing the experiment. EOC, containing all end nodes of simulated spaces and one administrative node, exercised publish and subscribe functions for payload data among all end nodes to verify the effectiveness of data exchange over ION protocol stacks. A Monitor and Control System was created and installed on the administrative node as a multi-tiered internet-based Web application to support the Deep Impact Network Experiment by allowing monitoring and analysis of the data delivery and statistics from ION. This Monitor and Control System includes the capability of receiving protocol status messages, classifying and storing status messages into a database from the ION simulation network, and providing web interfaces for viewing the live results in addition to interactive database queries.

Delay/Disruption Tolerant Network (DTN)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Spin dynamics in the itinerant antiferromagnet SrCr 2 ⁢As 2

SrCr 2 ⁢As 2 is an itinerant antiferromagnet in the same structural family as the SrFe 2 ⁢As 2 high-temperature superconductors. Here, we report our calculations of exchange-coupling parameters 𝐽 𝑖⁢𝑗 for SrCr 2 ⁢As 2 using a static linear-response method based on first-principles electronic-structure calculations. We find that the dominant nearest-neighbor exchange coupling 𝐽 1 >0 is antiferromagnetic whereas the next-nearest-neighbor exchange coupling 𝐽 2 <0 is ferromagnetic with 𝐽 2 /𝐽 1 = −0.68, reinforcing the checkerboard in-plane magnetic structure. Thus, unlike other transition-metal arsenides based on Mn, Fe, or Co, we find no competing magnetic interactions in SrCr 2 ⁢As 2 , which aligns with experimental findings. Moreover, the orbital resolution of exchange interactions shows that 𝐽 1 and 𝐽 2 are dominated by direct exchange mediated by the Cr 𝑑 orbitals. To validate the calculations we conduct inelastic neutron-scattering measurements on powder samples that show steeply dispersive magnetic excitations arising from the magnetic Γ points and persisting up to energies of at least 175 meV. The spin-wave spectra are then modeled using the Heisenberg Hamiltonian with the theoretically calculated exchange couplings. In conclusion, the calculated neutron-scattering spectra are in good agreement with the experimental data.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗