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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,063 records · Page 59
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Effect of fuel composition and EGR on spark-ignited engine combustion with LPG fueling: Experimental and numerical investigation

This paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation of a spark-ignited (SI) cooperative fuel research (CFR) engine fueled with different liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) fuels and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Here, the effects of LPG fuel composition on engine combustion characteristics are initially evaluated at two different compression ratios (CR). Results show normal combustion at CR 7 and heavy knocking combustion at CR 10 for all the tested fuels, with a more substantial impact for the LPG fuel with high proportions of n-butane species. The Livengood-Wu (LW) integral method is then used to analyze the knock occurrence risk of individual fuel based on the reactivity of the tested fuels. The introduction of EGR then demonstrates the potential of knock intensity reduction below the borderline knock limit. A zonal-based kinetic interactions study is also performed to understand the knock mitigation effectiveness of EGR over the pressure–temperature domain relevant to SI engine operation. Finally, a multidimensional, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation model is shown to predict the LPG combustion characteristics and presents the evolution of in-cylinder temperature and chemical species to demonstrate the development of end-gas autoignition events without and with EGR.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2023

Multidisciplinary design optimization in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction: a detailed review and call for collaboration

The design of buildings has become a complex and multidisciplinary problem involving multiple conflicting objectives as architects and designers address competing technical, economic, environmental, and societal concerns. This has been driving research in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) toward rigorous multidisciplinary decision-making frameworks that generate and evaluate numerous design alternatives using multi-objective optimization in concert with simulation and analysis models of varying fidelity and computational expense. While such frameworks are well known and widely employed in the aerospace and systems engineering domains, efforts by design professionals and researchers in the AEC field are scattered at best. In this paper, we provide a detailed review of recent developments in optimization frameworks in the AEC field and subsequently highlight how such developments are largely compartmentalized into separate domains such as structural, energy, daylighting, and other performance factors. Herein, we further discuss the technical challenges involved in concurrent coupled multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) in the AEC field such as interoperability issues between Building Information Modeling (BIM) environments, analysis/simulation tools, and optimization frameworks. We conclude by outlining research needed for more unified modeling and simulation-based optimization frameworks to aid in complex and multidisciplinary building design processes. We also highlight the need for the identification and development of multi-fidelity simulation tools for use across multiple design phases. As such, this paper contributes a novel roadmap to leverage aerospace and systems engineering research in MDO into the field of AEC, along with a call for researchers in the MDO community to seek collaborations in AEC field.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2018

Comparison of experimental and simulation results on interior subchannels of a 61-pin wire-wrapped hexagonal fuel bundle

As part of a joint U.S. Department of Energy project, Framatome, Argonne National Laboratory, Terrapower, and Texas A&M University have collaborated to produce experimental data and computational results to characterize the flow behavior of a 61-pin wire-wrapped hexagonal fuel bundle. Here, comparisons are made between Texas A&M’s experimental particle image velocimetry velocity field measurements and Argonne National Laboratory’s large-eddy simulation results in an interior subchannel for a Reynolds number of 19,000. It can be concluded that the shape and magnitude of the mean vertical velocity component is in excellent agreement for the selected horizontal line plots. Maximum relative errors are less than 10% until the subchannel walls are approached. Finally, the shape and, to a lesser extent, magnitude of the mean horizontal velocity component is in satisfactory agreement between the particle image velocimetry and large-eddy simulation results.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2017

A Simulation Framework for Battery Cell Impact Safety Modeling Using LS-DYNA

The development process of electrified vehicles can benefit significantly from computer-aided engineering tools that predict themultiphysics response of batteries during abusive events. A coupled structural, electrical, electrochemical, and thermal model framework has been developed within the commercially available LS-DYNA software. The finite element model leverages a three-dimensional mesh structure that fully resolves the unit cell components. The mechanical solver predicts the distributed stress and strain response with failure thresholds leading to the onset of an internal short circuit. In this implementation, an arbitrary compressive strain criterion is applied locally to each unit cell. A spatially distributed equivalent circuit model provides an empirical representation of the electrochemical responsewith minimal computational complexity.The thermalmodel provides state information to index the electrical model parameters, while simultaneously accepting irreversible and reversible sources of heat generation. The spatially distributed models of the electrical and thermal dynamics allow for the localization of current density and corresponding temperature response. The ability to predict the distributed thermal response of the cell as its stored energy is completely discharged through the short circuit enables an engineering safety assessment. A parametric analysis of an exemplary model is used to demonstrate the simulation capabilities.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Investigation of grid-based vorticity-velocity large eddy simulation off-body solvers for application to overset CFD

Accurately predicting unsteady wakes and vortex-dominated flows is essential to a wide range of engineering applications, including aircraft, rotorcraft, shipboard operations, bio-inspired unsteady flight and propulsion, wind turbines, and urban flows. While current CFD software can model the complete flow field and wake system, the computational costs incurred in high Reynolds number unsteady turbulent flow simulations often remain prohibitive for routine engineering use, particularly for applications involving moving components. Prior work has demonstrated that by adopting a vorticity-velocity formulation in a grid-based off-body flow solver (VorTran-M and VorTran-M2) one can lower these costs by several orders of magnitude when compared to conventional approaches. This paper describes the extensions made to VorTran-M2 to support turbulent flows, and associated benchmarking activity to assess its performance for problems involving strong stretching and diffusion processes, whose competing contributions to the vorticity field are core drivers of turbulent flow evolution. Predictions are presented for: (i) the Kida-Pelz problem whose inviscid form is of mathematical interest due to its apparent formation of singular flow in finite time; and (ii) the Taylor Green vortex arrangement, which has been extensively studied as a fundamental simulation challenge in the turbulent modeling community. Here, the results are used to evaluate the overall predictive ability and performance of two sub-grid scale models incorporated into VorTran-M2. Results indicate that the computational cost savings seen previously for inviscid and convection dominated problems extend to turbulent flow simulations supporting the viability of VorTran-M2 as a low cost means for accurately modeling the far-field and background flow, particularly when long duration vorticity evolution is of interest.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Membrane Options for IER 296 TEX-MOX [Slides]

This set of slides summarizes the structural analysis progress related to the LANL design engineering effort for the IER 296 Critical Experiment. FEA simulation results are presented for the determination of the membrane material and thickness to be used based on a combination of factors such as metal purity, deflection, and structural integrity. Model geometry uses Planet Top Plate described in LANL drawing 128Y271039-D11 and generic adapter plate like that described in LANL drawing 128Y1721030.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Development and evaluation of a skeletal mechanism for EHN additized gasoline mixtures in large Eddy simulations of HCCI combustion

Advanced Low Temperature Combustion modes, such as the Sandia proposed Additive-Mixing Fuel Injection (AMFI), can unlock significant potential to boost fuel conversion efficiency and ultimately improve the energy conversion of internal combustion engines. This is a novel improved combustion process that is enabled by supplying small (<5%) variable amounts of autoignition improver to the fuel to enhance the engine operation and control. Common, diesel-fuel ignition-quality enhancing additive, 2-ethylexyl nitrate (EHN), is doped into gasoline to enable Sandia LTGC + AMFI combustion. This manuscript focuses on the development of a reduced sub-mechanism for EHN chemical kinetics at engine relevant conditions that is implemented into a skeletal mechanism for chemical kinetic studies of gasoline surrogate fuels. The mechanism validation utilized zero-dimensional numerical simulations and comparison to shock tube ignition-delay data of pure and EHN-doped n-heptane. Additional validation is presented with Homogeneous Charge Compression-Ignition (HCCI) engine data of pure and EHN-doped research-grade E10 gasoline. Then, the mechanism was deployed in a 3-D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) using Large Eddy Simulations (LES) to model the HCCI engine experiments of 0.4% vol EHN additized E10 gasoline at several equivalence ratios. Simulations showed a very good performance of the mechanism, and the model accurately reproduced (a) the ignition point, (b) combustion phasing, (c) combustion duration, and (d) the peak of the heat release rates of the engine experiments. The results show that EHN promotes Low-Temperature Heat Release, ultimately driving the gasoline to autoignite at thermodynamic conditions where the fuel would not otherwise ignite. Overall, this work demonstrates a viable reduced chemical-kinetic mechanism for EHN and shows that it can be combined with a skeletal gasoline mechanism for CFD-LES analysis of well-mixed LTGC that matches well with experimental results. The CFD-LES analysis also shows the spatial distribution of EHN-fuel interactions that control the autoignition throughout the combustion chamber.

Guleria, Gaurav↗
DOE OSTI2021

Reinforced Ammo Can Validation Test Report for Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

A research effort was conducted to investigate the effects of an unintentional internal detonation of energetic materials on a small transportation container called the “Reinforced Ammo Can” (RAC), which is currently approved for the transport of energetic materials up to 2 grams net explosive weight (NEW) onsite at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). The project used experimental testing of the containers based on simulated results conducted by a Missouri S & T explosives engineering graduate student while on an internship working in explosives safety at LLNL. The proposed experimental testing consisted of 20 central detonation tests in separate Reinforced Ammo Can containers to verify their high explosive (HE) containment capability. RAC containers are required for transporting secondary explosives on site at LLNL Site 200 in quantities between 300 mg and 2 grams of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) equivalent NEW. Currently, the LLNL Environmental Safety and Health (ES&H) Manual states that the RAC containers are permissible for on-site transportation of secondary explosives up to 2 grams NEW by approved HE handlers with the approval of an Explosives Safety Expert (ESE). Simulated results indicated that tensile failure of the closure mechanism on the container is the most likely failure mode, and showed potential occurrence at the 2 gram NEW threshold. Experimental validation tests were conducted indicating failure/rupture of the containers lid with venting of the detonation products at the 2 gram NEW test threshold with an explosive mass safety factor of 1.3. Failure consisted of impact opening the container latch mechanism resulting in potential ejection of the lid depending on the orientation of the charge within the confinement. This analysis solely is an evaluation of the response of the containment if a detonation were to occur, it does NOT consider the probability of such an event.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

High-Fidelity Energy Deposition Ignition Model Coupled with Flame Propagation Models at Engine-like Flow Conditions

With the heightened pressure on car manufacturers to increase the efficiency and reduce the carbon emissions of their fleets, more challenging engine operation has become a viable option. Highly dilute, boosted, and stratified charge, among others, promise engine efficiency gains and emissions reductions. At such demanding engine conditions, the spark-ignition process is a key factor for the flame initiation propagation and the combustion event. From a computational standpoint, there exist multiple spark-ignition models that perform well under conventional conditions but are not truly predictive under strenuous engine operation modes, where the underlying physics needs to be expanded. In this paper, a hybrid Lagrangian-Eulerian spark-ignition (LESI) model is coupled with different turbulence models, grid sizes, and combustion models. The ignition model, previously developed, relies on coupling Eulerian energy deposition with a Lagrangian particle evolution of the spark channel, at every time-step. The spark channel is attached to the electrodes and allowed to elongate at a speed derived from the flow velocity. The LESI model is used to simulate spark ignition in a nonquiescent crossflow environment at engine-like conditions, using converge commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver. The results highlight the consistency, robustness, and versatility of the model in a range of engine-like setups, from typical with Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and a larger grid size to high fidelity with large-eddy simulation (LES) and a finer grid size. The flame kernel growth is then evaluated against Schlieren images from an optical constant volume ignition chamber with a focus on the performance of flame propagation models, such as G-equation and thickened flame model, versus the baseline well-stirred reactor model. Finally, future development details are discussed.

Advanced ignition modeling↗
DOE OSTI2020

Risk-Informed Applications and Science – Past, Present, & Future

This is a presentation to be made at the University of Tokyo. The Idaho National Laboratory is creating the next-generation reliability- and risk-assessment methods and tools that support risk-informed decision-making by combining physics-based models with probabilistic quantification approaches. Integrating these two worlds of physics and probability using a simulation framework leads us to predictions based upon an approach called “computational risk assessment” which will serve as the technical basis for the future of reliability and risk approaches. The driving factors for this new approach includes: temporal (timing issues), spatial (location issues), mechanistic (physics issues), and topological (complexity issues). By combining phenomenology directly with stochastic quantification, we are able to perform advanced uncertainty analysis directly on both parameters and models. In addition, new tools allow for the creation of reduced order models that mimic high-fidelity engineering models while still permitting the realization of thousands of simulation iterations in short run-times on current workstation-class computers. While these advanced methods and tools can provide increased realism in our engineering safety and risk approaches, their greater benefit is to provide a risk-informed engineering framework for design and operation. This talk will briefly review the history of risk assessment and risk-informed applications, describe some of the current research and development found at the Idaho National Laboratory, and discuss potential future applications and approaches for advanced methods and tools.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Phase-field simulations of intergranular fission gas bubble behavior in U 3 Si 2 nuclear fuel

U 3 Si 2 is a potential accident-tolerant fuel that shows promise due to its high thermal conductivity and higher uranium density relative to UO 2 . However, its swelling and fission gas release behavior in light water reactor (LWR) conditions is relatively unknown. To provide mechanistic insight and determine parameters for engineering-scale fuel performance modeling of pellet-form U 3 Si 2 , phase-field simulations of the growth, interconnection, and venting of intergranular fission gas bubbles were performed. The fractional coverage of the grain boundary and the fraction of bubble area that is vented were calculated as a function of time. From the simulation data, the fractional grain boundary coverage at saturation, an important parameter needed in engineering-scale modeling of swelling and fission gas release, was determined. Multiple simulations were run to determine the uncertainty in the calculated value. Finally, the effect of model assumptions and input parameters that are not well known was evaluated. Simulation results are compared to related theoretical and computational work. Based on the simulation results, a value of 0.60 for the fractional grain boundary coverage at saturation is recommended for U 3 Si 2 fuel.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Predicting long-term stress relaxation on Alloy 709 using the crystal plasticity finite element method

This report summarizes the results of physics-based, crystal plasticity simulations for the long-term stress relaxation behavior of Alloy 709. The purpose of the study was to provide insight into five key questions related to long-term behavior in high temperatures materials which are difficult or impossible to answer experimentally: (1) is there a threshold stress for long-term relaxation? (2) is there strain threshold for relaxation damage, below which significant damage does not accumulate? (3) does damage continue to accumulate as the material relaxes or will damage accumulation plateau under some loading conditions? (4) does stress relaxation loading inevitably lead to failure? and (5) which, if any, engineering models for relaxation damage accumulation reasonably match the simulation results? The report summarizes the numerical simulations used to address these five questions and provides at least partial answers to each question.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Effects of unburnt reaction progress on stretch flame dynamics under elevated temperatures

Flames in practical combustors and engines are inevitably subject to the effects of upstream chemical reaction progress and stretch, induced by elevated thermodynamic conditions and flow non-uniformities, respectively. Recent shock tube experiments and simulation studies on flame propagation have shown that flame speed under engine-relevant conditions can be enhanced with non-negligible upstream chemical reaction progress, especially when low-temperature heat release is involved in the unburnt mixture. On the other hand, depending on the mixture equivalence ratio and diluents, nonequidiffusion (including the non-unity Lewis number effect and the preferential diffusion effect) can couple with the flame stretch to fundamentally affect the flame propagation, which can manifest as either facilitation or suppression. Depending on the transport property of a reacting mixture, there hence can be either inhibition or promotion from unburnt reaction progress and stretch effects on flame propagation. In the current work, through one-dimensional numerical simulations of transient planar and spherical flames of n-heptane/air under elevated thermodynamic conditions, the combined effects of upstream chemical reaction progress and stretch on flame propagation are investigated. Results show that for both lean and rich n-heptane/air mixtures, flame speed can be substantially promoted with reaction progress, while the rich mixtures can exhibit opposite stretch dependence after first-stage ignition. Different definitions of effective Lewis number are adopted to explain the change in Markstein length for spherical flame in lean and rich mixtures reformed by the low temperature chemistry. Further, this work fills an important gap in laminar premixed flame research relevant to practical combustion systems and can provide useful insight into local turbulent flame behaviors and phi-sensitivity in engine combustion.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2019

A Limited-In-Scope Comparison of Subsidence Scenarios For 3D Vadose Zone PORFLOW Trench Models

This technical memorandum summarizes the results from two separate sequences of 3D PORFLOW vadose zone flow and contaminant transport models that were used to test the impact of different spatial distributions of subsidence boundary conditions. More specifically, the two simulation setups used a general conceptual model for an engineered trench (ET): one with a subsided region specified in the center of the trench and one with a subsided region located at the end of the trench. Both subsided regions had the same geometric specifications (e.g., length, width, orientation), but used water infiltration rate boundary conditions that appropriately accounted for surface runoff and lateral drainage from the adjacent upslope intact regions of the final closure cap. Because of the substantially higher water infiltration rate associated with the subsided region at the end of the trench, this geometry produced higher absolute peak fluxes to the water table for all six radionuclides that were simulated. However, the slower release rate of the centrally located subsided hole geometry produced a higher flux to the water table in the time period subsequent to the absolute peak. A third model was implemented as a control, where the water infiltration rate that corresponds to the centrally located subsided region was applied at the end of the trench to highlight the purely geometric effects. The results show that a higher water infiltration rate produces a sharper peak, while a lower infiltration rate leads to a broader peak. A centrally located hole impacts more of the waste zone, producing a higher peak when an equal infiltration rate is applied. These generalized qualitative differences, and their impacts on the overall modeling workflow (i.e., from vadose zone models to limits and dose calculations), should receive appropriate consideration during the development of conceptual models.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Report on Aging and Irradiation Theoretical Model Development for Alloy 690 in Grizzly

This report describes the current efforts to implement a model to predict the engineering scale behavior of irradiated and aged Ni 2 Cr model alloy and Alloy 690 into the Grizzly software. Grizzly is a multiphysics simulation code under development at Idaho National Laboratory to simulate aging mechanisms and their effects on the integrity of critical LWR components. Engineering scale behavior of materials are strongly impacted by the underlying microstructure: the distribution and interaction of dislocations and defects within the individual grains dictates how the material will respond to loading. The evolution of these dislocations and defects determines how the engineering scale material will perform under different loading and environmental conditions. Mesoscale models can function as a bridge to connect microstructure evolution models to engineering models of the ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) curve and fracture. The toughness of a material, which governs the engineering scale fracture behavior, is a function of both elastic deformation and plastic deformation. While the yield stress measurements capture the elastic contribution to a material’s toughness, information about the dislocation movement is required to understand the plastic component of toughness. Crystal plasticity models predict dislocation density evolution and thereby connect microstructure evolution to engineering scale behavior predictions. These models calculate the plastic strain within a metal as a function of dislocations and other crystal defects, including precipitates and interstitial loops, among others, by tracking dislocation movement and the interaction of these dislocations with the crystal defects. Within NiCr alloys, long-range ordered (LRO) precipitates form under aging conditions. These precipitates act as barriers to dislocation motion and are either sheared by dislocations or pin dislocations. Additional defects, such as stacking fault tetrahedra (SFTs) from irradiation damage, also impede dislocation motion in these alloys. A crystal plasticity mode for Ni 2 Cr model alloy and Alloy 690 is being currently implemented in the Grizzly code at INL. This report includes a description of the theoretical models incorporated into the Grizzly crystal plasticity code. These theoretical models include mechanisms for dislocation glade and twinning as well as dislocation-defect interaction relationship for both LRO precipitates and SFTs. We have selected these dislocation models based on the deformation mechanisms observed in experimental micropillar compression tests conducted on the Ni 2 Cr model alloy. The models are then extended to Alloy 690 with ongoing parameter fitting.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2017

A kinetic modeling study on octane rating and fuel sensitivity under HCCI conditions

With the development of advanced compression ignition engines such as the homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and the reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI), the long existing research and motor octane rating for fuels, i.e., RON and MON, might be insufficient to describe the fuel reactivity and performance with these new combustion strategies due to their distinctive engine operation conditions. It is also noted that with the stringent regulation for CO2 emission, a detailed knowledge of fuel reactivity is urgently needed for the selection of novel alternative bio-fuels for transportation, and optimization of their engine performance in the future. It is therefore very important to understand the reactivity and sensitivity for general classes of fuels as a function of the operating conditions in these advanced combustion engines. In this modeling study, using validated kinetic mechanism for ignition, we have simulated the performance of different classes of fuels including hydrogen, alkanes (straight and branched), alcohols and potential bio-fuels under typical HCCI engine conditions using detailed chemical kinetics. The crank angle corresponding to 50% total heat release (CA50) is utilized as an indicator for the fuel reactivity. Iso-contours of CA50 are then plotted in the engine operating parameter coordinate, such as the intake temperature, and pressure. It is shown that CA50 value can vary significantly with different engine operating conditions, and that fuels with the same RON/MON even exhibit qualitatively different CA50 iso-contours in specific operating regimes, implying differences in the intrinsic reactivity of different classes of fuels, as well as the insufficiency of RON/MON as comprehensive metrics of fuel reactivity in advanced compression ignition (ACI) strategies. In addition, the operating regime with high and low sensitivity, as well as potential non-monotonic change in fuel reactivity, has been identified by the CA50 iso-contour map for all studied fuels.

Wu, Tong↗
DOE OSTI2019

Auto-ignitive deflagration speed of methane (CH 4 ) blended dimethyl-ether (DME)/air mixtures at stratified conditions

Front propagation speeds from fully resolved unsteady one dimensional simulations with dimethyl-ether (DME)/methane (CH 4 )/air mixtures under engine relevant conditions are presented using complex kinetics and transport. Different time-scales of monochromatic inhomogeneities in DME concentration with varying DME/CH 4 blending ratios are simulated to unravel the fundamental aspects of auto-ignition and flame propagation under the influence of reactivity stratification. To understand the influence of different stratification time-scales on the flame-ignition interaction, two sets of conditions are simulated such that low temperature chemistry is present in only one of them. For a given amplitude of stratification, it is found that the instantaneous propagation speed is significantly affected by the level of CH 4 concentration in the binary fuel blend. Specifically, for cases with low temperature chemistry, at relatively smaller time-scales, the overall fluctuation in the instantaneous propagation speed is found to subside as the level of CH 4 concentration in the mixture is increased. However, for both sets of conditions, at comparatively larger time-scales, a rapid change in the instantaneous propagation speed is observed with an increase in the level of CH 4 concentration in the mixture. The intrinsic effects of stratification time-scales on the low temperature chemistry and the high temperature chemistry are further examined to assess the flame-ignition interaction. A displacement speed analysis is also carried out to elucidate the underlying combustion modes that are responsible for such a variation in flame response.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Learning the solution operator of parametric partial differential equations with physics-informed DeepONets

Partial differential equations (PDEs) play a central role in the mathematical analysis and modeling of complex dynamic processes across all corners of science and engineering. Their solution often requires laborious analytical or computational tools, associated with a cost that is markedly amplified when different scenarios need to be investigated, for example, corresponding to different initial or boundary conditions, different inputs, etc. In this work, we introduce physics-informed DeepONets, a deep learning framework for learning the solution operator of arbitrary PDEs, even in the absence of any paired input-output training data. We illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework in rapidly predicting the solution of various types of parametric PDEs up to three orders of magnitude faster compared to conventional PDE solvers, setting a previously unexplored paradigm for modeling and simulation of nonlinear and nonequilibrium processes in science and engineering.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗