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DOE OSTI2025

Advances in Carbon Electrode Integration for Stable and Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules

Carbon-electrode-based perovskite solar cells (C-PSCs) have emerged as a cost-effective and scalable alternative to noble-metal-based PSCs, addressing critical challenges related to device stability, fabrication complexity, and commercialization potential. This review explores the recent progress in C-PSC development, focusing on the benefits of carbon electrodes (CEs), including their hydrophobicity, chemical inertness to halide corrosion, and compatibility with low-temperature cost-effective solution-based deposition methods. Despite relatively lower power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) than their metal (e.g., Au/Ag) counterparts, recent advances in carbon paste formulation, interfacial contact engineering, and work function modification have elevated C-PSC efficiencies above 22%. This review further examines strategies to enhance electrode conductivity, interfacial properties, and charge selectivity to further increase C-PSC performance. Progress in carbon-electrode-based perovskite solar modules (C-PSMs), particularly within mesoporous and planar architectures, is also analyzed, revealing significant developments in active area scaling and long-term stability. Notably, the limited research in inverted (PIN) C-PSCs is also highlighted as a compelling opportunity for innovation, given the architecture's inherent advantages in flexibility, tandem integration, and low-temperature processing. Collectively, these insights affirm the potential of C-PSCs and C-PSMs to deliver affordable, stable, and high-performance photovoltaics suitable for scalable deployment.

Carbon Electrodes↗

DOE OSTI2026

Marine algae growth and carbon capture augmentation by antioxidant nanozymes

Large scale commercial cultivation of microalgae year-round is limited by seasonal stress conditions. The rapid growth and high CO 2 capture of the marine microalga Picochlorum celeri is largely inhibited under winter stress conditions of low temperature and high light. Herein, we demonstrated a nanotechnology approach to enhance the biomass productivity and CO 2 capture of P. celeri under abiotic stress by interfacing with antioxidant cerium oxide nanozymes (nanoceria). Antioxidant nanoceria catalytically scavenged reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated under stress conditions, reducing damage to the microalgae photosynthetic machinery in chloroplasts. Negatively charged poly-acrylic acid-coated nanoceria (PNC, 10 μM) were biocompatible in microalgae cells and colocalized with chloroplasts. In contrast, positively charged aminated nanoceria (ANC) resulted in microalgae aggregation (>50 μM) and were toxic at all concentrations tested (≥10 μM). PNC reduction of ROS levels in microalgae (78%) and superoxide levels (26%), enhanced microalgae growth (65%), photosynthetic performance (130%), and CO 2 uptake rate (380%) under low-temperature stress (15 °C) and high light (500 μmol/m 2 /s PAR) stress relative to controls without nanoceria. Nanoceria augmentation of microalgae provides a rapid and facile technology to increase algae CO 2 capture and biomass under stress conditions.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

NASA NTRS1979

Automated Array Assembly, Phase 2

The large scale production of silicon solar cell array panels is discussed. The cost and performance of three manufacturing sequences designed to convert silicon sheet and wafers into solar panels is analyzed. The production of ion implanted and furnace annealed solar cells made using solar grade n- and p-type wafers is examined. The performance of production size lots is examined with regard to the relationship between the ion implant and furnace anneal parameters and the ability to form consistently good thick film screen printed contacts. The spray on antireflection coating process is evaluated. The performance of several lots of cells before and after coating is measured. The structure and refractive index of the RCA I (TiO2) coating is compared with commercial solutions. Sensitivity of coated, screen printed cells to the post heat treatment required to cure the films is assessed.

Daiello, R. V.↗

NASA NTRS2018

The Revolutionary Vertical Lift Technology (RVLT) Project

The Revolutionary Vertical Lift Technology (RVLT) Project is one of six projects in the Advanced Air Vehicles Program (AAVP) of the NASA Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate. The overarching goal of the RVLT Project is to develop and validate tools, technologies, and concepts to overcome key barriers for vertical lift vehicles. The project vision is to enable the next generation of vertical lift vehicles with aggressive goals for efficiency, noise, and emissions, to expand current capabilities and develop new commercial markets. The RVLT Project invests in technologies that support conventional, non-conventional, and emerging vertical-lift aircraft in the very light to heavy vehicle classes. Research areas include acoustic, aeromechanics, drive systems, engines, icing, hybrid-electric systems, impact dynamics, experimental techniques, computational methods, and conceptual design. The project research is executed at NASA Ames, Glenn, and Langley Research Centers; the research extensively leverages partnerships with the US Army, the Federal Aviation Administration, industry, and academia. The primary facilities used by the project for testing of vertical-lift technologies include the 14- by 22-Ft Wind Tunnel, Icing Research Tunnel, National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex, 7- by 10-Ft Wind Tunnel, Rotor Test Cell, Landing and Impact Research facility, Compressor Test Facility, Drive System Test Facilities, Transonic Turbine Blade Cascade Facility, Vertical Motion Simulator, Mobile Acoustic Facility, Exterior Effects Synthesis and Simulation Lab, and the NASA Advanced Supercomputing Complex. To learn more about the RVLT Project, please stop by booth #1004 or visit their website at https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/aavp/rvlt.

NASA↗

DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Cupriavidus necator H16 as a host for aerobic C1 conversion

Biological systems capable of converting CO 2 or CO 2 -derived, single-carbon (C1) compounds can be used to reduce or reverse carbon emissions while establishing a circular bioeconomy to provide sustainable sources of the fuels, foods, and materials humanity relies on. A robust bioeconomy will rely upon a variety of microorganisms capable of assimilating C1 compounds and converting them to valuable products at industrial scale. While anaerobic microbes are ideal hosts for production of short-chain acids and alcohols, microbes capable of aerobic respiration are well suited for biosynthesis of higher molecular weight products. One such organism is the gram-negative soil bacterium Cupriavidus necator, which has been utilized in commercial production of biopolymers for decades. More recently, its capability of robust, aerobic growth on CO 2 has inspired research efforts that have advanced it toward becoming one of the leading bacterial hosts for C1-based biomanufacturing. This review highlights those efforts in the context of the characteristics that have historically made C. necator an excellent host for industrial bioconversion processes: its metabolic versatility, ability to grow rapidly to high cell densities, and genetic amenability.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS2015

Impact Testing and Simulation of a Sinusoid Foam Sandwich Energy Absorber

A sinusoidal-shaped foam sandwich energy absorber was developed and evaluated at NASA Langley Research Center through multi-level testing and simulation performed under the Transport Rotorcraft Airframe Crash Testbed (TRACT) research project. The energy absorber, designated the "sinusoid," consisted of hybrid carbon- Kevlar® plain weave fabric face sheets, two layers for each face sheet oriented at +/-45deg with respect to the vertical or crush direction, and a closed-cell ELFOAM(TradeMark) P200 polyisocyanurate (2.0-lb/ft3) foam core. The design goal for the energy absorber was to achieve an average floor-level acceleration of between 25- and 40-g during the full-scale crash test of a retrofitted CH-46E helicopter airframe, designated TRACT 2. Variations in the design were assessed through quasi-static and dynamic crush testing of component specimens. Once the design was finalized, a 5-ft-long subfloor beam was fabricated and retrofitted into a barrel section of a CH-46E helicopter. A vertical drop test of the barrel section was conducted onto concrete to evaluate the performance of the energy absorber prior to retrofit into TRACT 2. Finite element models were developed of all test articles and simulations were performed using LSDYNA ®, a commercial nonlinear explicit transient dynamic finite element code. Test analysis results are presented for the sinusoid foam sandwich energy absorber as comparisons of load-displacement and acceleration-time-history responses, as well as predicted and experimental structural deformations and progressive damage for each evaluation level (component testing through barrel section drop testing).

Jackson, Karen E.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Building a Robust Commercial Microgravity Economy in Earth's Orbit: Economic Readiness Considerations

The reduced gravity environment of space provides a unique opportunity to further our understanding of various materials phenomena involving the molten, fluidic and gaseous states as well as life science applications where, contrary to earlier beliefs, microgravity induces changes in single cells and simple organisms; not only in large organisms with a complex overall response to gravity (or lack thereof). The potential breadth of commercial opportunities in microgravity thus spans over many verticals of the private sector with applications ranging from fiber optics, high-resolution crystals, microencapsulation, 3D organs to perfume and color dyes. Overall, products manufactured in microgravity hold the promise to have key properties surpassing their best terrestrial counterparts. Commercialization, also known as taking a new technology to market, is a journey in itself where the business, economic, market and technological components must align to generate a successful outcome. A business perspective is very different than technology maturation. In order for a technology to be ready for commercialization, it must not only be mature, but it must also have a compelling business case, and the means to scale up production must be identified and practical. Creating a robust economy in Earths orbit (Fig 1) is especially challenging because of the complexity (high risks, lack of standardization) involved in predicting future growth. This complexity can easily overwhelm the fact that many of the products have an attractive touch of space which aids with branding and marketing.This paper reviews the types of added value that can be extracted from space, with an emphasis on the microgravity environment. In addition, lessons learned from past commercialization efforts will be reviewed. While past efforts have yielded some point successes, they have as a whole failed to precipitate a sustainable LEO based market

Cozmuta, Ioana↗

DOE OSTI2026

Combined Nitrogen and Phosphorous Recovery via Electrochemical Technology Integration into Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

This project developed electroN-P, an electrochemical technology for recovering nitrogen and phosphorus as a fertilizer product from anaerobic digester centrate, targeting an advancement from TRL 4 to 6. The reactor was scaled 220× from a 250 mL batch cell to a continuous 4-channel system treating 55 L of wastewater, recovering >80% of phosphorus. Energy consumption under constant-voltage operation was lower than the embedded energy of conventional fertilizers, while constant-current operation produced a cost-competitive product with a smaller reactor footprint. TEA and LCA outcomes were highly sensitive to the magnesium source; alternative magnesium salt configurations projected reduced costs and embedded energy compared to sacrificial rods, but at the expense of significantly longer operation times. The recovered fertilizer performed comparably to diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate in soil and plant trials. Integrating the technology into a whole-plant model reduced aeration energy by nearly 50%, lowering the levelized cost of water treatment from $0.668/m 3 to $0.648/m 3 . Results support targeting commercialization at smaller (≤1 MGD) facilities with high-strength digester streams. Further investigation into the transport and corrosion kinetics governing sacrificial anode wear is recommended to support continuous, longer-term operation.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

NASA NTRS2002

Tensile Properties of Hydrogels and of Snake Skin

Stimulus-responsive or 'smart' gels are of potential interest as sensors and actuators, in industrial separations, and as permeable delivery systems. In most applications, a certain degree of mechanical strength and toughness will be required, yet the large-strain behavior of gels has not been widely reported. Some exceptions include work on gelatin and other food gels, some characterization of soft gels applicable for in-vitro cell growth studies, and toughness determinations on commercial contact lens materials. In general, it can be anticipated that the gel stiffness will increase with increasing degree of crosslinking, but the tensile strength may go through a maximum. Gel properties can be tailored by varying not only the degree of crosslinking, but also the polymer concentration and the nature of the polymer backbone (e.g. its stiffness or solubility). Polypeptides provide an especially interesting case, where secondary structure affects trends in moduli and conformational transitions may accompany phase changes. A few papers on the tensile properties of responsive gels have begun to appear. The responsive hydrogel chosen for the present study, crosslinked hydroxypropylcellulose, shrinks over a rather narrow temperature range near 44 C. Some vertebrate skin is also subject to substantial strain. Among reptiles, the morphologies of the skin and scales show wide variations. Bauer et al. described the mechanical properties and histology of gecko skin; longitudinal tensile properties of snake skin were examined by Jayne with reference to locomotion. The present measurements focus on adaptations related to feeding, including the response of the skin to circumferential tension. Tensile properties will be related to interspecific and regional variation in skin structure and folding.

Hinkley, Jeffrey A.↗

NASA NTRS2006

Advanced Energy Conversion Technologies and Architectures for Earth and Beyond

Research, development and studies of novel space-based solar power systems, technologies and architectures for Earth and beyond are needed to reduce the cost of clean electrical power for terrestrial use and to provide a stepping stone for providing an abundance of power in space, i.e., manufacturing facilities, tourist facilities, delivery of power between objects in space, and between space and surface sites. The architectures, technologies and systems needed for space to Earth applications may also be used for in-space applications. Advances in key technologies, i.e., power generation, power management and distribution, power beaming and conversion of beamed power are needed to achieve the objectives of both terrestrial and extraterrestrial applications. There is a need to produce "proof-ofconcept" validation of critical WPT technologies for both the near-term, as well as far-term applications. Investments may be harvested in near-term beam safe demonstrations of commercial WPT applications. Receiving sites (users) include ground-based stations for terrestrial electrical power, orbital sites to provide power for satellites and other platforms, future space elevator systems, space vehicle propulsion, and space surface sites. Space surface receiving sites of particular interest include the areas of permanent shadow near the moon s North and South poles, where WPT technologies could enable access to ice and other useful resources for human exploration. This paper discusses work addressing a promising approach to solar power generation and beamed power conversion. The approach is based on a unique high-power solar concentrator array called Stretched Lens Array (SLA) applied to both solar power generation and beamed power conversion. Since both versions (solar and laser) of SLA use many identical components (only the photovoltaic cells need to be different), economies of manufacturing and scale may be realized by using SLA on both ends of the laser power beaming system in a space solar power application. Near-term uses of this SLA-laser-SLA system may include terrestrial and space exploration in near Earth space. Later uses may include beamed power for bases or vehicles on Mars. Strategies for developing energy infrastructures in space which utilize this technology are presented. This dual use system produces electrical energy efficiently from either coherent light, such as from a highly coherent laser, or from conventional solar illumination. This allows, for example, supplementing solar energy with energy provided by highly coherent laser illumination during periods of low solar illumination or no illumination. This reduces the need for batteries and alternate sources of power. The capability of using laser illumination in a lowest order Gaussian laser mode provides means for transmitting power optically with maximum efficiency and precision over the long distances characteristic of space. A preliminary receiving system similar to that described here, has been produced and tested under solar and laser illumination. A summary of results is given.

Howell, Joe T.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Novel One-Step Production of Carbon-Coated Sn Nanoparticles for High-Capacity Anodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries offer the highest energy density of any currently available portable energy storage technology. By using different anode materials, these batteries could have an even greater energy density. One material, tin, has a theoretical lithium capacity (994 mAh/g) over three-times higher than commercial carbon anode materials. Unfortunately, to achieve this high capacity, bulk tin undergoes a large volume expansion, and the material pulverizes during cycling, giving a rapid capacity fade. To mitigate this issue, tin must be scaled down to the nano-level to take advantage of unique micromechanics at the nanoscale. Synthesis techniques for Sn nanoparticle anodes are costly and overly complicated for commercial production. A novel one-step process for producing carbon-coated Sn nanoparticles via spark plasma erosion (SPE) shows great promise as a simple, inexpensive production method. The SPE method, characterization of the resulting particles, and their high-capacity reversible electrochemical performance as anodes are described. With only a 10% addition of these novel SPE carbon-coated Sn particles, one anode composition demonstrated a reversible capacity of ~460 mAh/g, achieving the theoretical capacity of that particular electrode formulation. These SPE carbon-coated Sn nanoparticles are drop-in ready for present commercial lithium-ion anode processing and would provide a ~10% increase in the total capacity of current commercial lithium-ion cells.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

NASA NTRS2015

The Development of Two Composite Energy Absorbers for Use in a Transport Rotorcraft Airframe Crash Testbed (TRACT 2) Full-Scale Crash Test

Two composite energy absorbers were developed and evaluated at NASA Langley Research Center through multi-level testing and simulation performed under the Transport Rotorcraft Airframe Crash Testbed (TRACT) research program. A conical-shaped energy absorber, designated the conusoid, was evaluated that consisted of four layers of hybrid carbon-Kevlar plain weave fabric oriented at [+45deg/-45deg/-45deg/+45deg] with respect to the vertical direction. A sinusoidal-shaped energy absorber, designated the sinusoid, was developed that consisted of hybrid carbon-Kevlar plain weave fabric face sheets, two layers for each face sheet oriented at +/-45deg with respect to the vertical direction, and a closed-cell ELFOAM P200 polyisocyanurate (2.0-lb/cu ft) foam core. The design goal for the energy absorbers was to achieve average floor-level accelerations of between 25- and 40-g during the full-scale crash test of a retrofitted CH-46E helicopter airframe, designated TRACT 2. Variations in both designs were assessed through dynamic crush testing of component specimens. Once the designs were finalized, subfloor beams of each configuration were fabricated and retrofitted into a barrel section of a CH-46E helicopter. A vertical drop test of the barrel section was conducted onto concrete to evaluate the performance of the energy absorbers prior to retrofit into TRACT 2. The retrofitted airframe was crash tested under combined forward and vertical velocity conditions onto soft soil. Finite element models were developed of all test articles and simulations were performed using LS-DYNA, a commercial nonlinear explicit transient dynamic finite element code. Test-analysis results are presented for each energy absorber as comparisons of time-history responses, as well as predicted and experimental structural deformations and progressive damage under impact loading for each evaluation level.

Littell, Justin D.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Hydrogen Energy Storage System at Borrego Springs Towards an H2 Enabled 100% Renewable Microgrid

San Diego Gas & Electric's Borrego Springs Microgrid is one of the largest microgrids in the USA, serving 2500 residential customers, 300 commercial and industrial customers, and has a peak demand of approximately 14 MW. This microgrid is located at the end of a long transmission line, and is subjected to extreme weather events like storms, wildfires, and flooding, which frequently cause grid outages. The microgrid currently relies on 3.65 MW of diesel-powered generators to provide grid-forming services during these outages, which results in greenhouse gas and criteria pollutant emissions. However, the microgrid has access to approximately 37 MW of installed solar generation and struggles with overgeneration and curtailment. 1.5 MW/4.5 MWh of grid-scale batteries have been installed to capture some the overgeneration and provide resiliency, but a longer-duration low-greenhouse gas emission energy storage solution is needed. In our project, the team will evaluate in the lab and demonstrate in the field a grid-forming fuel cell inverter that can provide grid-forming services while utilizing hydrogen's energy storage scalability. We will first utilize NREL's Renewable Energy Integration and Optimization (REopt) platform to perform analyses on future microgrid scenarios that use hydrogen assets to reduce or eliminate the need for diesel backup generators. We will then evaluate the grid-forming inverter through power hardware-in-the-loop and controller hardware-in-the-loop experiments at ARIES, and de-risk the field deployment and operation of hydrogen assets in the microgrid setting. Finally, this project will demonstrate the operation of the fuel cell inverter and updated microgrid controller by operating in grid-forming mode in the Borrego Springs microgrid.

blackstart with fuel cells↗

NASA NTRS2015

Multi-Level Experimental and Analytical Evaluation of Two Composite Energy Absorbers

Two composite energy absorbers were developed and evaluated at NASA Langley Research Center through multi-level testing and simulation performed under the Transport Rotorcraft Airframe Crash Testbed (TRACT) research program. A conical-shaped energy absorber, designated the conusoid, was evaluated that consisted of four layers of hybrid carbon-Kevlar plain weave fabric oriented at [+45 deg/-45 deg/-45 deg/+45 deg] with respect to the vertical, or crush, direction. A sinusoidal-shaped energy absorber, designated the sinusoid, was developed that consisted of hybrid carbon-Kevlar plain weave fabric face sheets, two layers for each face sheet oriented at +/-45deg with respect to the vertical direction and a closed-cell ELFOAM P200 polyisocyanurate (2.0-lb/cu ft) foam core. The design goal for the energy absorbers was to achieve average floor-level accelerations of between 25- and 40-g during the full-scale crash test of a retrofitted CH-46E helicopter airframe, designated TRACT 2. Variations in both designs were assessed through dynamic crush testing of component specimens. Once the designs were finalized, subfloor beams of each configuration were fabricated and retrofitted into a barrel section of a CH-46E helicopter. A vertical drop test of the barrel section was conducted onto concrete to evaluate the performance of the energy absorbers prior to retrofit into TRACT 2. The retrofitted airframe was crash tested under combined forward and vertical velocity conditions onto soil, which is characterized as a sand/clay mixture. Finite element models were developed of all test articles and simulations were performed using LS-DYNA, a commercial nonlinear explicit transient dynamic finite element code. Test-analysis results are presented for each energy absorber as comparisons of time-history responses, as well as predicted and experimental structural deformations and progressive damage under impact loading for each evaluation level.

Jackson, Karen E.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Economic Readiness Level Considerations for a Robust LEO Economy

The reduced gravity environment of space provides a unique opportunity to further our understanding of various materials phenomena involving the molten, fluidic and gaseous states as well as life science applications where, contrary to earlier beliefs, microgravity induces changes in single cells and simple organisms; not only in large organisms with a complex overall response to gravity (or lack thereof). The potential breadth of commercial opportunities in microgravity thus spans over many verticals of the private sector with applications ranging from fiber optics, high-resolution crystals, microencapsulation, 3D organs to perfume and color dyes. Overall, products manufactured in microgravity hold the promise to have key properties surpassing their best terrestrial counterparts. Commercialization, also known as taking a new technology to market, is a journey in itself where the business, economic, market and technological components must align to generate a successful outcome. A business perspective is very different than technology maturation, which can be measured with the usual Technology Readiness Level (TRL) approach. In order for a technology to be ready for commercialization, it must not only be mature (high TRL), but it must also have a compelling business case, and the means to scale up production must be identified and practical. Creating a sustainable economy in an emerging market such as microgravity is especially challenging because of the complexity (high risks, lack of standardization) involved in predicting future growth. This complexity can easily overwhelm the fact that many of the products have an attractive touch of space which aids with branding and marketing.This paper builds upon the concept of the verticals of microgravity, capturing not only new lines of investigations but also promising killer apps originating from microgravity to discuss and define the notion of Economic Readiness Level (ERL). To advance in ERL, the technology itself may not necessarily need to mature at all, but the understanding of its economic potential does. Building upon ERL, a model that ultimately leads to the creation of pathways for infusion of private capital and a sustainable commercial microgravity LEO-Earth economy will be discussed.

Cozmuta, Ioana↗

NASA NTRS2000

POWOW: A Modular, High Power Spacecraft Concept

A robust space infrastructure encompasses a broad range of mission needs along with an imperative to reduce costs of satellites meeting those needs. A critical commodity for science, commercial and civil satellites is power at an affordable cost. The POWOW (POwer WithOut Wires) spacecraft concept was created to provide, at one end of the scale, multi-megawatts of power yet also be composed of modules that can meet spacecraft needs in the kilowatt range. With support from the NASA-sponsored Space Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology Program, the POWOW spacecraft concept was designed to meet Mars mission needs - while at the same time having elements applicable to a range of other missions. At Mars, the vehicle would reside in an aerosynchronous orbit and beam power to a variety of locations on the surface. It is the purpose of this paper to present the latest concept design results. The Space Power Institute along with four companies: Able Engineering, Inc., Entech, Inc., Primex Aerospace Co., and TECSTAR have produced a modular, power-rich electrically propelled spacecraft design that meets these requirements. In addition, it also meets a range of civil and commercial needs. The spacecraft design is based on multijunction Ill-V solar cells, the new Stretched Lens Aurora (SLA) module, a lightweight array design based on a multiplicity of 8 kW end-of-life subarrays and electric thrusters. The solar cells have excellent radiation resistance and efficiencies above 30%. The SLA has a concentration ratio up to 15x while maintaining an operating temperature of 80 C. The design of the 8 kW array building block will be presented and its applicability to commercial and government missions will be discussed. Electric propulsion options include Hall, MPD and ion thrusters of various power levels and trade studies have been conducted to define the most advantageous options. The present baseline spacecraft design providing 900 kW using technologies expected to be available in 2003 will be described. Areal power densities of nearly 400 W/meters squared at 80 C operating temperatures and wing level specific powers of over 400 W/kg are projected. Details of trip times and payloads to Mars will be presented as well as trade studies of various electric propulsion options. Trip times compare favorably with chemical propulsion options. Because the design is modular, learning curve methodology can be applied to determine expected cost reductions. These results will also be included. This paper has not been presented at a previous meeting.

Brandhorst, Henry W., Jr.↗

DOE OSTI2025

High-heat transfer lithium-ion batteries: A new era in battery thermal management

Despite advances in lithium-ion battery technology, critical challenges remain that must be addressed to accelerate electric vehicle (EV) adoption and global energy transformation. Significantly improved battery thermal management (BTM) is key to overcoming these challenges. BTM approaches focus on increasing heat transfer coefficients via air, liquid, or refrigerant cooling, but less attention is given to reducing the battery's thermal resistance, a major bottleneck for heat transfer. This work introduces a novel approach to reduce battery thermal resistance by integrating in-plane heat transfer with optimized cell geometry, minimized thermal resistances, and reduced interfacial resistances, representing a departure from previous methods. The standard prismatic can cell incorporating this technology is referred to as the high heat transfer (HHT) battery. An equivalent resistance battery thermal model is developed for speed and accuracy, validated against experimental data in the literature, demonstrating strong correlation and ensuring reliable predictions for real-world performance. Thermal performance metrics of the conventional and HHT batteries are compared using a parametric study with air, liquid, and refrigerant boundary conditions across a range of aspect ratios. The HHT battery shows a heat removal rate up to 20 times higher than a conventional battery. These findings suggest that HHT technology could be transformative for EV battery performance, enabling fast charging, mitigating thermal runaway, extending battery life, reducing cold-weather power loss, increasing reliability, lowering costs, and enabling higher energy density, all critical for EV adoption and energy transformation. Future work will focus on prototyping and real-world testing to refine these findings for commercial-scale applications.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

SIBatt-3D: In-Space/On-Surface 3D Printing of Sodium Ion Batteries from ISRU Materials

Constructed more than 20 years ago, the International Space Station’s primary power system originally used nickel-hydrogen batteries with a lifetime of 6.5 years, until NASA began the process of replacing them in 2016 with lithium-ion batteries with a lifetime of 10 years. The demanding and costly process was accomplished after four flights of the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft (with a cost of about $10,000 per pound of payload), and 13 different astronauts conducting 14 spacewalks. Besides utilization in the ISS, rechargeable batteries are present in many space applications: they are installed in exploration robots, life support systems and in portable communication devices, to mention some. In this context, this project is focused on the in-space manufacturing of shape-conformable batteries using in-situ resources, and aims to address the NASA’s gaps related to the development of next generation of energy storage devices (TX03), as well as in-space manufacturing and in-situ resource utilization (TX07). The proposed work also tackles the HEOMD’s objectives targeting the in-space additive manufacturing (AM) from Lunar/Martian materials (regolith as AM feedstock) to reinvigorate America’s Human Space Exploration Program (SPD-1). This project is in direct alignment with the STMD’s objectives to demonstrate in-space autonomous manufacturing and assembly of complete systems by 2030, and to enable humans to live and explore in space and on planetary surfaces by 2040 thanks to in-space habitation, infrastructure development and in-situ resource utilization (ST1 and ST5). Manufacturing of shape conformable batteries directly in-space and using in-situ resources would also contribute to reducing the payload weight and volume (TX12) for future missions, thus reducing risk for long term Mars missions where rapid resupply is logistically infeasible. Nowadays, commercial batteries consist of stacked two-dimensional (2D) sheets, which are only manufactured in restricted geometries (cylindrical and coin cell). Evolving from conventional 2D, complex 3D battery architectures have been proven to increase the electrochemical active surface area and ion diffusion path, leading to improved areal energy density and power performance. This tendency was illustrated in our recent in-depth modeling studies by simulating a classical Ragone plot exhibiting the energy-power relationship. Our team demonstrated through modeling that a complex gyroidal 3D printed battery architecture exhibits significantly improved power performances (>150% at the current density of 6C; full discharge in 10 minutes) in comparison to a traditional 3D printed planar geometry. Motivated by these results and as the fabrication of intricate 3D battery design is only possible experimentally thanks to the geometric freedom offered by additive manufacturing (AM), our team has already initiated leveraging thermoplastic material extrusion at the laboratory scale. While 3D printing of batteries is relatively recent (2013), it has witnessed a growing interest during the last recent years, as next-generation shape-conformable 3D batteries can be co-designed with the system. Consequently, dead-volume and mass brought from Earth are minimized, in addition to improved battery performance, in alignment with the aforementioned NASA’s objectives. Further, while this project is specifically dedicated to batteries, it lends itself towards the maturation of in-space manufacturing via 3D printing using in-situ resources, stated in HEOMD and STMD goals.

In-Space Manufacturing↗