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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Crew Time Requirements in Future Space Greenhouses - What Can We Infer from Current Analog and Space Missions?

Efficient crop production will be required to advance humanity’s presence in space, and for this, accurate predictions of crew time in future space greenhouse modules will be crucial to design and operate these plant growth systems, and schedule crop production. Crew time estimates will also be critical for deciding priorities of automating different aspects of space crop production. Because it is difficult to capture in operational environments, crew time for plant cultivation has only been sporadically recorded in past analog and space missions. We propose a methodology for efficient categorizing and reporting of crew time in space plant growth systems: first identify the different tasks needed to operate the greenhouse module, second define a representative time period for data collection, third accurately report crew time for individual tasks - and their occurrence, and fourth use collected data to improve greenhouse modules and plant growth system designs. Using data from various analog facilities and from the Veggie hardware on ISS, and assumptions for different mission scenarios, we discuss how crew time for plant cultivation can be reduced with adequate choices of crops, automation, artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual assistants, and sufficient crew training. This has major implications for the design of future space greenhouse modules. For example, missions on future space stations or during interplanetary travel would save significant crew time by including leafy greens and microgreens for astronaut’s diet supplement, with automated watering, health and environmental checks, as well as AI managing maintenance schedules, and a virtual assistant for repair activities. This work was funded by NASA Space Biology through NASA postdoctoral program / USRA, by NASA’s Space Biology and Human Research Programs, and by the European Union Horizon 2020 program via the COMPET-07-2014 - Space exploration – Life-support subprogram (reference number: 636501).

Lucie Poulet↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Crew Time Requirements in Future Space Greenhouses: What Can We Infer from Current Analog and Space Missions?

Efficient crop production will be required to advance humanity’s presence in space, and for this, accurate predictions of crew time in future space greenhouse modules will be crucial to design and operate these plant growth systems, and schedule crop production. Crew time estimates will also be critical for deciding priorities of automating different aspects of space crop production. Because it is difficult to capture in operational environments, crew time for plant cultivation has only been sporadically recorded in past analog and space missions. We propose a methodology for efficient categorizing and reporting of crew time in space plant growth systems: first identify the different tasks needed to operate the greenhouse module, second define a representative time period for data collection, third accurately report crew time for individual tasks - and their occurrence, and fourth use collected data to improve greenhouse modules and plant growth system designs. Using data from various analog facilities and from the Veggie hardware on ISS, and assumptions for different mission scenarios, we discuss how crew time for plant cultivation can be reduced with adequate choices of crops, automation, artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual assistants, and sufficient crew training. This has major implications for the design of future space greenhouse modules. For example, missions on future space stations or during interplanetary travel would save significant crew time by including leafy greens and microgreens for astronaut’s diet supplement, with automated watering, health and environmental checks, as well as AI managing maintenance schedules, and a virtual assistant for repair activities. This work was funded by NASA Space Biology through NASA postdoctoral program / USRA, by NASA’s Space Biology and Human Research Programs, and by the European Union Horizon 2020 program via the COMPET-07-2014 - Space exploration – Life-support subprogram (reference number: 636501).

Veggie↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Extending the Duration of Crewed Stays on the Lunar Surface

NASA’s Artemis missions aim to return humans to the Moon for the first time since the Apollo Program. Unlike the Apollo missions, Artemis missions will take advantage of pre-emplaced assets on the lunar surface to support crewed exploration, science, and utilization. Although the initial Artemis surface missions are intended to keep crew on the lunar surface for durations ranging from several days to several weeks, crewed stays of longer periods may provide additional support toward NASA’s Moon to Mars Objectives, including long-term exploration and continuous human lunar presence. If mission durations are extended beyond the expected few weeks, the elements and concepts of operation for the lunar architecture will need to be capable of supporting that extension. This paper uses an integrated systems analysis perspective to examine the architectural considerations of extending the duration of human missions on the lunar surface. By identifying these key architectural considerations, this paper offers insight into how elements and operations might meet the demands of potential future mission concepts. This paper does not recommend changes to NASA’s lunar architecture, and it does not evaluate whether any mission concepts affect the relative satisfaction of the Moon to Mars Objectives. However, if crew do remain on the surface for progressively longer periods of time, the functions and capabilities provided by the assets supporting the crew may need to adjust to support the needs of those missions. The functions and capabilities identified as key to enable such extended duration missions include power generation and storage, logistics delivery, radiation mitigation, provision of medical and exercise capability, abort from the lunar surface, maintenance, and the provision of pressurized volume. For example, the medical capabilities available to the crew may become more extensive, and habitable elements may need to change to support longer crewed periods (and shorter quiescent periods). In some cases, these changes may be accomplished through alterations to use cases, operational changes, or the evolution of lunar surface elements, but in other cases, new elements may be preferable. By identifying key considerations for the functions and capabilities of notional lunar surface elements as the length of each crewed mission is extended from several days to continuous human presence on the Moon, this paper assesses how the elements of NASA’s lunar architecture might support the extension of mission durations. In addition, this analysis can help inform future evaluation of whether such extended duration missions improve NASA’s ability to address its Moon to Mars Objectives.

Garrett M. Carman↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Exploration Crew Health and Performance System of the Future - A Shared Mental Model

The challenges involved in vehicle/habitat design and operation for long-duration deep space missions are complex, and the needs of a human crew must be considered in the context of all the system trades required to enable such missions. An exploration Crew Health and Performance (CHP) system complements all the other vehicle/habitat systems to achieve one specific and critical endpoint – ensuring that the astronauts can perform the job that they were sent into space to do. This includes accounting for all aspects of the physiological, psychological, medical, and environmental realities that the human crew must face in deep space. Along with this system complexity comes the additional need for increased autonomy of the crew due to the immense distance from Earth. The design of future systems must respect the real human capabilities and limitations within the context of a mission to the Moon or Mars. The NASA Moon to Mars Objectives document outlines the need for advanced CHP system designs: • Develop systems that monitor and maintain crew health and performance throughout all mission phases, including during communication delays to Earth, and in an environment that does not allow emergency evacuation or terrestrial medical assistance. • Evaluate and validate progressively Earth-independent crew health & performance systems and operations with mission durations representative of Mars-class missions. • Validate readiness of systems and operations to support crew health and performance for the initial human Mars exploration campaign. This presentation will outline the initial work that Exploration Medical Capability is leading on the development of a prototype design for an exploration Crew Health and Performance (CHP) system for future NASA human deep space long-duration missions. This effort will require commitment from all stakeholders to a shared mental model of what a future exploration CHP system should look like, one that will address the needs, goals, and objectives of the Agency and help to ensure mission success in deep space.

K R Lehnhardt↗
NASA NTRS2024

Crew Health and Performance Integrated Data Architecture (CHP-IDA) TechPort May 2024

Future exploration missions to Mars will have increased need for crew autonomy. Crew Health & Performance (CHP) related data on the ISS is currently, manually downlinked and in disparate locations, which limits crew autonomy for future missions. The CHP-IDA project is developing a backend data system platform that grants the ability to seamlessly collect, store, process, and display CHP-related data for exploration missions. This platform allows for integration of data and advanced analytics that offer crew and ground teams better insight into the crew’s health and performance. It also enables applications that can improve the crew’s ability to provide more autonomous medical care during exploration missions. Data will be collected automatically to reduce crew and ground team time and effort and will synchronize across all in-mission vehicles, habitats, and ground as communication delay permits. The Human Research Program’s (HRP) Medical Data Architecture (MDA) project focused on this backend data architecture but for medical data only. The CHP-IDA project, a joint effort between HRP’s Exploration Medical Capability (ExMC) element and the Exploration Medical Integrated Product Team (XMIPT), expands this capability to all relevant CHP-related data. The additional inputs from nutrition, environment, exercise, radiation, and any other relevant sources will give more insight into crew’s health and performance. Currently, the Human Systems Engineering and Integration Division at Johnson Space Center (JSC) is designing the system. The team completed a system requirements review (SRR) in FY22 and now the focus is on core software development, testbed buildup, and use case scenario demonstration. An end-to-end demonstration with multiple data sources across CHP domains is schedule for the end of FY24 where all three focus areas will be displayed. Following this ground demo, the software will be completed, tested, and validated for flight.

Courtney M Schkurko↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Extravehicular Activity on the Lunar Surface: Mapping Mitigation Risk Consequence for Crew Needing Assistance or Rescue

Extravehicular activity (EVA) on the lunar surface presents unique risks to crew with possibility for injury. Without appropriate assistance or rescue capability, inability to nominally ambulate and return to a lander, especially during early Artemis missions, could have catastrophic consequences. Mapping likelihood and consequence safety risk associated with identified injury scenarios establishes a baseline from which to assess potential mitigation solutions to ensure crew health and safety. Causes leading to the need for incapacitated crew rescue (ICR) during EVA on the lunar surface were previously identified and classified using an ICR/Acute Injury scenario spectrum. Severe scenarios are those when the affected astronaut requires either partial or full continuous assistance from the rescuer. Evaluation of these continual reliance conditions included calculating event probabilities (likelihoods) associated with an early Artemis mission and mapping them to established Exploration System Directorate (ESD) probability thresholds; safety consequences were analyzed and correlated to defined ESD personnel safety categories. These resulting likelihood and consequence values served as a baseline for assessing risk reduction of three mitigation capabilities: crew assistance (rescuer crew) only, walking assist devices, and a wheeled transport device. Of the twenty-five continual reliance conditions, ten were evaluated as “catastrophic” (Level 5, loss of life) during EVA on the lunar surface with probabilities ranging from moderate to very low during an early Artemis mission. Crew assistance only and walking assist devices showed similar potential for risk reduction, with four of the ten causes decreasing to Level 4. A wheeled transport device further increased risk reduction with six of the ten conditions decreasing to Level 4. Given the catastrophic consequence of several identified conditions, assessments should be performed to determine the feasibility of mitigation capabilities. It is currently unknown whether a rescuer astronaut could effectively provide continuous assistance to enable both crew to return safely to the lander from the standpoint of both suit geometry and human performance. Although resulting in an increase in resources, providing a wheeled transport provides the highest risk reduction potential, and walking assist devices may have prevention as well as mitigation benefits.

lunar surface↗
NASA NTRS2025

Humans to Mars, but How Many? Trade Space Analyses for Mars Mission Crew Size

Missions to Mars will differ from previous human spaceflight missions in that the crew of astronauts will be required to operate in an Earth-independent manner due to the long communication delays. Without a systematic, repeatable process to determine the number and composition of crew necessary to successfully accomplish these missions, NASA increases the risk that crew sizes may be too small to meet primary mission objectives under nominal conditions and, more consequentially, that crewmembers may not have the expertise needed to successfully respond to unforeseen failures without the real-time expertise of the Mission Control Central (MCC) team NASA currently relies upon. The NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) developed a methodology for assessing the trade space of factors that affect the number of crew for Mars missions based on human performance and expertise modeling. This methodology includes the consideration of results from three human performance models developed using the Improved Performance Research and Integration Tool (IMPRINT) modeling platform as well as a custom-built model on expertise trained within the crew based on NASA’s crew qualification and responsibilities matrix (CQRM). We present example model results and discuss implications on trade space analyses for Mars mission crew size.

Mars Mission↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Crew Health and Performance Integrated Data Service Platform (CHP-IDSP): Project Updates

Future human exploration missions introduce a new paradigm as crews move further from the resupply and near real-time ground support typical of Low Earth Orbit missions today. Without immediate support from ground-based personnel, exploration crews will be more reliant on inflight data and technology to respond to emergencies and anomalies. Today, in-flight data is often siloed, unsynchronized, and largely inaccessible in real time. Many data sets require manual entry and/or data transfer between vehicles and the ground. These issues contribute to risks in supporting crew autonomy for future exploration missions. An integrated data services platform is needed to mitigate these risks by supporting a new generation of technologies and employing advanced analytical and predictive modeling techniques to enable crew autonomy for future exploration missions. The Crew Health and Performance Integrated Data System Platform (CHP-IDSP) project is laying a foundation for future in-flight informatics by providing a back-end architecture for collecting, storing, and integrating multiple sources of data generated by and around the crew. This cohesive integration point will streamline the management of CHP data (e.g., environmental, exercise, medical, sleep, performance, etc.) and facilitate situation awareness and decision support required by the crew and remote support of exploration missions. This presentation will describe the ongoing development effort of the path-to-flight CHP-IDSP software and the demonstration of its core capabilities. This includes a brief history of the project, the human-centered process used to identify data needs and workflows feeding the development of scenarios and requirements, and current subsystem development status. Current integrations, including the Chiron exploration electronic health record application, will be discussed. Future work includes collaboration with additional CHP domains and a flight technology demonstration.

Software↗
NASA NTRS1984

A Full Mission Simulator Study of Aircrew Performances: the Measurement of Crew Coordination and Decisionmaking Factors and Their Relationships to Flight Task Performances

Sixteen three man crews flew a full mission scenario in an airline flight simulator. A high level of verbal interaction during instances of critical decision making was located. Each crew flew the scenario only once, without prior knowledge of the scenario problem. Following a simulator run and in accord with formal instructions, each of the three crew members independently viewed and commented on a videotape of their performance. Two check pilot observers rated pilot performance across all crews and, following each run, also commented on the video tape of the crew's performance. A linguistic analysis of voice transcript is made to provide assessment of crew coordination and decision making qualities. Measures of crew coordination and decision making factors are correlated with flight task performance measures.

Murphy, M. R.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Crew factors in the design of the Space Station

The designing of Space Shuttle modules and equipment in order to provide a stimulating and efficient work atmosphere and a pleasant living environment is examined. The habitation module for the eight crew members is divided into four areas: ceiling, floor, port, and starboard. The module is to consist of crew quarters, a wardroom, a galley, a personal hygiene facility, a health maintenance facility, and stowage areas. There is a correlation between the function of the module and its location; for example the galley will be near the wardroom and the personal hygiene facility near the crew quarters. The designs of the equipment for crew accommodation and of the equipment to be maintained and repaired by the crew will be standarized. The design and functions of the crew and equipment restraints, crew mobility aids, racks to contain equipment, and functional units are described.

Robinson, Judith L.↗
NASA NTRS1987

The formation process of flight crews

A study which uses Hackman's Normative Model (1986) for group effectiveness to see if there are any differences between the behaviors of effective and less effective captains at building and maintaining their crews is presented. Captains were selected using crew evaluations, creating a final pool of six effective crew managers and four captains less proficient as crew leaders. Data collection began at crew briefings, and continued through two trips, with intense data gathering during critical incidents for both task and process events. It was found that a predetermined set of interactions that can occur between crew members exists for the forming crew. It is concluded that effective captains expand the set of interactions, decreasing the limitations on how the group will work together.

Ginnett, Robert C.↗
NASA NTRS1995

What ASRS incident data tell about flight crew performance during aircraft malfunctions

This research examined 230 reports in NASA's Aviation Safety Reporting System's (ASRS) database to develop a better understanding of factors that can affect flight crew performance when crew are faced with inflight aircraft malfunctions. Each report was placed into one of two categories, based on severity of the malfunction. Report analysis was then conducted to extract information regarding crew procedural issues, crew communications and situational awareness. A comparison of these crew factors across malfunction type was then performed. This comparison revealed a significant difference in ways that crews dealt with serious malfunctions compared to less serious malfunctions. The authors offer recommendations toward improving crew performance when faced with inflight aircraft malfunctions.

Sumwalt, Robert L.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Flight Crew Factors for CTAS/FMS Integration in the Terminal Area

Center TRACON Automation System (CTAS)/Flight Management System (FMS) integration on the flightdeck implies flight crews flying coupled in highly automated FMS modes [i.e. Vertical Navigation (VNAV) and Lateral Navigation (LNAV)] from top of descent to the final approach phase of flight. Pilots may also have to make FMS route edits and respond to datalink clearances in the Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) airspace. This full mission simulator study addresses how the introduction of these FMS descent procedures affect crew activities, workload, and performance. It also assesses crew acceptance of these procedures. Results indicate that the number of crew activities and workload ratings are significantly reduced below current day levels when FMS procedures can be flown uninterrupted, but that activity numbers increase significantly above current day levels and workload ratings return to current day levels when FMS procedures are interrupted by common ATC interventions and CTAS routing advisories. Crew performance showed some problems with speed control during FMS procedures. Crew acceptance of the FMS procedures and route modification requirements was generally high; a minority of crews expressed concerns about use of VNAV in the TRACON airspace. Suggestions for future study are discussed.

Crane, Barry W.↗
NASA NTRS2002

STS-112 Crew Training Clip

Footage shows the crew of STS-112 (Jeffrey Ashby, Commander; Pamela Melroy, Pilot; David Wolf, Piers Sellers, Sandra Magnus, and Fyodor Yurchikhin, Mission Specialists) during several parts of their training. The video is arranged into short segments. In 'Topside Activities at the NBL', Wolf and Sellers are fitted with EVA suits for pool training. 'Pre-Launch Bailout Training in CCT II' shows all six crew members exiting from the hatch on a model of a shuttle orbiter cockpit. 'EVA Training in the VR Lab' shows a crew member training with a virtual reality simulator, interspersed with footage of Magnus, and Wolf with Melroy, at monitors. There is a 'Crew Photo Session', and 'Pam Melroy and Sandy Magnus at the SES Dome' also features a virtual reality simulator. The final two segments of the video involve hands-on training. 'Post Landing Egress at the FFT' shows the crew suiting up into their flight suits, and being raised on a harness, to practice rapelling from the cockpit hatch. 'EVA Prep and Post at the ISS Airlock' shows the crew assembling an empty EVA suit onboard a model of a module. The crew tests oxygen masks, and Sellers is shown on an exercise bicycle with an oxygen mask, with his heart rate monitored (not shown).

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2005

Reactions of Air Transport Flight Crews to Displays of Weather During Simulated Flight

Display of information in the cockpit has long been a challenge for aircraft designers. Given the limited space in which to present information, designers have had to be extremely selective about the types and amount of flight related information to present to pilots. The general goal of cockpit display design and implementation is to ensure that displays present information that is timely, useful, and helpful. This suggests that displays should facilitate the management of perceived workload, and should allow maximal situation awareness. The formatting of current and projected weather displays represents a unique challenge. As technologies have been developed to increase the variety and capabilities of weather information available to flight crews, factors such as conflicting weather representations and increased decision importance have increased the likelihood for errors. However, if formatted optimally, it is possible that next generation weather displays could allow for clearer indications of weather trends such as developing or decaying weather patterns. Important issues to address include the integration of weather information sources, flight crew trust of displayed weather information, and the teamed reactivity of flight crews to displays of weather. Past studies of weather display reactivity and formatting have not adequately addressed these issues; in part because experimental stimuli have not approximated the complexity of modern weather displays, and in part because they have not used realistic experimental tasks or participants. The goal of the research reported here was to investigate the influence of onboard and NEXRAD agreement, range to the simulated potential weather event, and the pilot flying on flight crew deviation decisions, perceived workload, and perceived situation awareness. Fifteen pilot-copilot teams were required to fly a simulated route while reacting to weather events presented in two graphical formats on a separate visual display. Measures of flight crew reactions included performance-based measures such as deviation decision accuracy, and judgment-based measures such as perceived decision confidence, workload, situation awareness, and display trust. Results demonstrated that pilots adopted a conservative reaction strategy, often choosing to deviate from weather rather than ride through it. When onboard and NEXRAD displays did not agree, flight crews reacted in a complex manner, trusting the onboard system more but using the NEXRAD system to augment their situation awareness. Distance to weather reduced situation awareness and heightened workload levels. Overall, flight crews tended to adopt a participative leadership style marked by open communication. These results suggest that future weather displays should exploit the existing benefits of NEXRAD presentation for situation awareness while retaining the display structure and logic inherent in the onboard system.

Bliss, James P.↗
NASA NTRS2008

The Integrated Medical Model: Statistical Forecasting of Risks to Crew Health and Mission Success

The Integrated Medical Model (IMM) helps capture and use organizational knowledge across the space medicine, training, operations, engineering, and research domains. The IMM uses this domain knowledge in the context of a mission and crew profile to forecast crew health and mission success risks. The IMM is most helpful in comparing the risk of two or more mission profiles, not as a tool for predicting absolute risk. The process of building the IMM adheres to Probability Risk Assessment (PRA) techniques described in NASA Procedural Requirement (NPR) 8705.5, and uses current evidence-based information to establish a defensible position for making decisions that help ensure crew health and mission success. The IMM quantitatively describes the following input parameters: 1) medical conditions and likelihood, 2) mission duration, 3) vehicle environment, 4) crew attributes (e.g. age, sex), 5) crew activities (e.g. EVA's, Lunar excursions), 6) diagnosis and treatment protocols (e.g. medical equipment, consumables pharmaceuticals), and 7) Crew Medical Officer (CMO) training effectiveness. It is worth reiterating that the IMM uses the data sets above as inputs. Many other risk management efforts stop at determining only likelihood. The IMM is unique in that it models not only likelihood, but risk mitigations, as well as subsequent clinical outcomes based on those mitigations. Once the mathematical relationships among the above parameters are established, the IMM uses a Monte Carlo simulation technique (a random sampling of the inputs as described by their statistical distribution) to determine the probable outcomes. Because the IMM is a stochastic model (i.e. the input parameters are represented by various statistical distributions depending on the data type), when the mission is simulated 10-50,000 times with a given set of medical capabilities (risk mitigations), a prediction of the most probable outcomes can be generated. For each mission, the IMM tracks which conditions occurred and decrements the pharmaceuticals and supplies required to diagnose and treat these medical conditions. If supplies are depleted, then the medical condition goes untreated, and crew and mission risk increase. The IMM currently models approximately 30 medical conditions. By the end of FY2008, the IMM will be modeling over 100 medical conditions, approximately 60 of which have been recorded to have occurred during short and long space missions.

Fitts, M. A.↗
NASA NTRS2008

Post-Landing Orion Crew Survival in Warm Ocean Areas: A Case Study in Iterative Environmental Design

The Orion crew module (CM) is being designed to perform survivable land and water landings. There are many issues associated with post-landing crew survival. In general, the most challenging of the realistic Orion landing scenarios from an environmental control standpoint is the off-nominal water landing. Available power and other consumables will be very limited after landing, and it may not be possible to provide full environmental control within the crew cabin for very long after splashdown. Given the bulk and thermal insulation characteristics of the crew-worn pressure suits, landing in a warm tropical ocean area would pose a risk to crew survival from elevated core body temperatures, if for some reason the crewmembers were not able to remove their suits and/or exit the vehicle. This paper summarizes the analyses performed and conclusions reached regarding post-landing crew survival following a water landing, from the standpoint of the crew s core body temperatures.

Rains, George E.↗
NASA NTRS2009

The Integrated Medical Model - Optimizing In-flight Space Medical Systems to Reduce Crew Health Risk and Mission Impacts

The Integrated Medical Model (IMM) is a decision support tool used by medical system planners and designers as they prepare for exploration planning activities of the Constellation program (CxP). IMM provides an evidence-based approach to help optimize the allocation of in-flight medical resources for a specified level of risk within spacecraft operational constraints. Eighty medical conditions and associated resources are represented in IMM. Nine conditions are due to Space Adaptation Syndrome. The IMM helps answer fundamental medical mission planning questions such as What medical conditions can be expected? What type and quantity of medical resources are most likely to be used?", and "What is the probability of crew death or evacuation due to medical events?" For a specified mission and crew profile, the IMM effectively characterizes the sequence of events that could potentially occur should a medical condition happen. The mathematical relationships among mission and crew attributes, medical conditions and incidence data, in-flight medical resources, potential clinical and crew health end states are established to generate end state probabilities. A Monte Carlo computational method is used to determine the probable outcomes and requires up to 25,000 mission trials to reach convergence. For each mission trial, the pharmaceuticals and supplies required to diagnose and treat prevalent medical conditions are tracked and decremented. The uncertainty of patient response to treatment is bounded via a best-case, worst-case, untreated case algorithm. A Crew Health Index (CHI) metric, developed to account for functional impairment due to a medical condition, provides a quantified measure of risk and enables risk comparisons across mission scenarios. The use of historical in-flight medical data, terrestrial surrogate data as appropriate, and space medicine subject matter expertise has enabled the development of a probabilistic, stochastic decision support tool capable of optimizing in-flight medical systems based on crew and mission parameters. This presentation will illustrate how to apply quantitative risk assessment methods to optimize the mass and volume of space-based medical systems for a space flight mission given the level of crew health and mission risk.

Kerstman, Eric↗