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NASA NTRS2019

Astrobiology Survey of a Lava Cave at Lava Beds National Monument by a Rover Carrying a Remote Sensing Instrument Payload

We report here on a survey of a lava tube cave by a rover that is instrumented for astrobiology missions. The NASA Ames testbed rover, CaveR, was deployed in Valentine Cave in Lava Beds National Monument (N. CA, USA) during August of 2018. The rover carried an instrument package consisting of Near Infrared and Visible Spectrometer System (NIRVSS) a point spectrometer operating in 1590-3400 nm range, sensitive to H2O and -OH bearing minerals, pyroxenes, and carbonates (Roush, et al 2018); the bore sighted Drill Operations Camera (DOC), a monochrome imager illuminated by LEDs at 410, 540, 640, 740, 905 and 940 nm; a Realsense ™ depth sensor system for 3D model generation; and a high resolution DSLR stereo camera. The payload was mounted on a tiltable instrument platform attached to the left side of the rover. The rover was driven manually in the cave by field operators, following instructions from a remote science operations team, and simulating a mission concept with science-guided autonomy. A simulated mission took place for 3 days with a team of 3 scientists selecting targets and interpreting data from the payload. To begin the mission, the rover drove along one wall of the cave imaging continuously with the Realsense in 20 m cave segments, three total. At the start of each day, the images from a 20m segment and a panorama stitched from them were provided to the science team to examine. The science team used these data to prioritize specific points along the cave wall for the collection of NIRVSS, DOC, and DSLR data. The objective of the data collection was to identify and study putative biological and mineralogical features in the cave. The data were delivered in xGDS, a customized mapping, planning, and data base management software developed at NASA Ames (Lee, et al 2013). Once the targets for further observations were selected, a plan for collecting the observations (positions in the cave and pointing for each requested observation) was constructed using xGDS and delivered to a rover team to execute the science data collection plan. Acquired data were delivered back to the science team for analysis. Preliminary results from the experiment illustrate the utility of the system (rover plus payload) to study the cave geology and mineralogy and its potential for identifying biomineral features.

Wong, Uland↗

NASA NTRS2015

Crosscutting Airborne Remote Sensing Technologies for Oil and Gas and Earth Science Applications

Airborne imaging spectroscopy has evolved dramatically since the 1980s as a robust remote sensing technique used to generate 2-dimensional maps of surface properties over large spatial areas. Traditional applications for passive airborne imaging spectroscopy include interrogation of surface composition, such as mapping of vegetation diversity and surface geological composition. Two recent applications are particularly relevant to the needs of both the oil and gas as well as government sectors: quantification of surficial hydrocarbon thickness in aquatic environments and mapping atmospheric greenhouse gas components. These techniques provide valuable capabilities for petroleum seepage in addition to detection and quantification of fugitive emissions. New empirical data that provides insight into the source strength of anthropogenic methane will be reviewed, with particular emphasis on the evolving constraints enabled by new methane remote sensing techniques. Contemporary studies attribute high-strength point sources as significantly contributing to the national methane inventory and underscore the need for high performance remote sensing technologies that provide quantitative leak detection. Imaging sensors that map spatial distributions of methane anomalies provide effective techniques to detect, localize, and quantify fugitive leaks. Airborne remote sensing instruments provide the unique combination of high spatial resolution (<1 m) and large coverage required to directly attribute methane emissions to individual emission sources. This capability cannot currently be achieved using spaceborne sensors. In this study, results from recent NASA remote sensing field experiments focused on point-source leak detection, will be highlighted. This includes existing quantitative capabilities for oil and methane using state-of-the-art airborne remote sensing instruments. While these capabilities are of interest to NASA for assessment of environmental impact and global climate change, industry similarly seeks to detect and localize leaks of both oil and methane across operating fields. In some cases, higher sensitivities desired for upstream and downstream applications can only be provided by new airborne remote sensing instruments tailored specifically for a given application. There exists a unique opportunity for alignment of efforts between commercial and government sectors to advance the next generation of instruments to provide more sensitive leak detection capabilities, including those for quantitative source strength determination.

hyperspectral↗

NASA NTRS1990

Modifications to the rapid melt/rapid quench and transparent polymer video furnaces for the KC-135

Given here is a summary of tasks performed on two furnace systems, the Transparent Polymer (TPF) and the Rapid Melt/Rapid Quench (RMRQ) furnaces, to be used aboard NASA's KC-135. It was determined that major changes were needed for both furnaces to operate according to the scientific investigators' experiment parameters. Discussed here are what the problems were, what was required to solve the problems, and possible future enhancements. It was determined that the enhancements would be required for the furnaces to perform at their optimal levels. Services provided include hardware and software modifications, Safety DataPackage documentation, ground based testing, transportation to and from Ellington Air Field, operation of hardware during KC-135 flights, and post-flight data processing.

Smith, Guy A.↗

NASA NTRS2022

History and Development of the USAF Agriculture Meteorology Modeling System and resulting USAF-NASA Strategic Partnership

The USAF Weather (AFW) supports a number of military and U.S. government agencies by providing authoritative weather analysis and forecast products for any location globally, including soil moisture analyses. The long history of supporting soil moisture products and partnering with other U.S. government agencies led to the partnering between the U.S. Air Force (USAF) and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, resulting in a merger of those organizations’ modeling systems, collaborative development of the Land Information System (LIS), and operational fielding of the system within the USAF 557th Weather Wing [557 WW; formerly, Headquarters Air Force Weather Agency (HQ AFWA)]. In 2009, the USAF implemented the NASA LIS and later made it the primary software system to generate global soil hydrology and energy budget products. The implementation of LIS delivered a significant upgrade over the existing Land Data Assimilation System (LDAS) the USAF operated, the Agriculture Meteorology (AGRMET) system. Implementation enabled the rapid integration of new LDAS technology into USAF operations, and led to a long-term NASA–USAF partnership resulting in continued development, integration, and implementation of new LIS capabilities. This paper documents both the history of the USAF Weather organization capabilities enabling the generation of soil moisture and other land surface analysis products, and describes the USAF–NASA partnership leading to the development of the merged LIS-AGRMET system. The article also presents a successful example of a mutually beneficial partnership that has enabled cutting-edge land analysis capabilities at the USAF, while transitioning NASA software and satellite data into USAF operations.

John Eylander↗

NASA NTRS2010

Integration Process for the Habitat Demonstration Unit

The Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU) is an experimental exploration habitat technology and architecture test platform designed for analog demonstration activities The HDU project has required a team to integrate a variety of contributions from NASA centers and outside collaborators and poses a challenge in integrating these disparate efforts into a cohesive architecture To complete the development of the HDU from conception in June 2009 to rollout for operations in July 2010, a cohesive integration strategy has been developed to integrate the various systems of HDU and the payloads, such as the Geology Lab, that those systems will support The utilization of interface design standards and uniquely tailored reviews have allowed for an accelerated design process Scheduled activities include early fit-checks and the utilization of a Habitat avionics test bed prior to equipment installation into HDU A coordinated effort to utilize modeling and simulation systems has aided in design and integration concept development Modeling tools have been effective in hardware systems layout, cable routing and length estimation, and human factors analysis Decision processes on the shell development including the assembly sequence and the transportation have been fleshed out early on HDU to maximize the efficiency of both integration and field operations Incremental test operations leading up to an integrated systems test allows for an orderly systems test program The HDU will begin its journey as an emulation of a Pressurized Excursion Module (PEM) for 2010 field testing and then may evolve to a Pressurized Core Module (PCM) for 2011 and later field tests, depending on agency architecture decisions The HDU deployment will vary slightly from current lunar architecture plans to include developmental hardware and software items and additional systems called opportunities for technology demonstration One of the HDU challenges has been designing to be prepared for the integration of presently unanticipated systems Results of the HDU field tests will influence future designs of habitat systems.

Gill, Tracy↗

NASA NTRS2020

Integrated Demand Management: Concepts and Procedures

This report provides a comprehensive description of the Integrated Demand Management concept. Motivation: NASA’s Integrated Demand Management (IDM) research explores the idea that, under certain conditions, time-based flow management (TBFM) arrival operations can benefit from the coordinated use of a strategic traffic management initiative (TMI) to “precondition” the inbound demand. The research was motivated by the observation that TBFM was usually turned off during convective weather, even in facilities where it was routinely used. Our hypothesis was that strategic adjustments to the inbound traffic so that it provided a better match to the off-nominal changes in capacity observed during these conditions could enable TBFM scheduling to continue to provide effective support for arrival traffic management. Concept: IDM proposes that a TMI (e.g., a Collaborative Trajectory Options Program, or CTOP) be used to adjust the rate and/or geographic distribution across flows of the traffic inbound to a high-demand, TBFM-managed airport before that traffic reaches the TBFM planning horizon. After this strategic preconditioning, TBFM can then tactically fine-tune the demand to deliver a well-managed, orderly feed to the destination airport. Coordinated use of these two flow management capabilities is intended to improve system performance in terms of: • Equity of ground delay assignment, avoiding excessive ground delay for TBFM-scheduled departures, without penalizing longer flights; • Throughput, by distributing traffic to maximize use of available capacity; • Predictability for operators, providing advance notice about the impact on individual flights; • Increased flexibility, supporting operator mitigation strategies such as slot swapping or trajectory options; • Efficiency of flight operations, using ground delay more effectively and reducing airborne delay. The operational description in this document highlights how the IDM concept builds upon already existing tools and procedures, and also indicates where tool enhancements could facilitate conduct of IDM operations. However, enhanced tools are not a requirement for concept introduction. In fact, initial deployment that focused on training procedures and rationale for coordinated use of TFMS and TBFM, without changes to existing tools, might be a simpler way to introduce and to familiarize traffic managers with the idea of preconditioning. The concept and procedures described in this document can hopefully provide useful guidance for introduction of IDM into field operations..

IDM↗

DOE OSTI2025

Zero-bias conductance peaks at zero applied magnetic field due to stray fields from integrated micromagnets in hybrid nanowire quantum dots

Many recipes for realizing topological superconductivity rely on broken time-reversal symmetry, which is often attained by applying a substantial external magnetic field. Alternatively, using magnetic materials can offer advantages through low-field operation and design flexibility on the nanoscale. Mechanisms for lifting spin degeneracy include exchange coupling, spin-dependent scattering, spin injection – all requiring direct contact between the bulk or induced superconductor and a magnetic material. Here, we implement locally broken time-reversal symmetry through dipolar coupling from nearby micromagnets to superconductor-semiconductor hybrid nanowire devices. Josephson supercurrent is hysteretic due to micromagnets switching. At or around zero external magnetic field, we observe an extended presence of Andreev bound states near zero voltage bias. We also show a zero-bias peak plateau of a non-quantized value. Our findings largely reproduce earlier results where similar effects were presented in the context of topological superconductivity in a homogeneous wire, and attributed to more exotic time-reversal breaking mechanisms [Nat. Phys. 17, 43 (2020)]. In contrast, our stray field profiles are not designed to create Majorana modes, and our data are compatible with a straightforward interpretation in terms of trivial states in quantum dots. At the same time, the use of micromagnets in hybrid superconductor-semiconductor devices shows promise for future experiments on topological superconductivity.

Jiang, Luyao [Univ. of Pittsburgh, PA (United Stat↗

NASA NTRS2004

LiNbO3 Cylinder Fiber

We have successfully fabricate optical fiber with a thin layer of LiNbO3 at the boundary of the glass core and clear glass cladding. The construction of this fiber is based on our successful Semiconductor Cylinder Fibers (SCF). A schematic representation of a LiN bo, Cylinder Fiber. These fibers can be used as light modulators, sonar detectors and in other applications. The core diameter of the fiber is sufficiently small compared to the light wavelength and the indices of refraction of the core and cladding glasses are sufficiently close in value so that there is sufficient light at the core cladding boundary to interact with the LiNbO3 layer. This fiber functions best when just a single light mode propagates through the fiber. The idea for a LiNbO3 Cylinder Fiber came from Dr. Tracee Jamison of NASA. The optical properties of LiNbO3 can be changed with strain or the application of an electric field. Thus these fibers can be used as acoustic sensors as for example in a sonar. They can also be used as electric field operated light modulators. However, for this application the fibers would be made with a cross section in the form of a "D". The core with its surrounding LiNbO, layer would be close to the flat portion of the "D" shaped fiber. Two metal contacts would be deposited on the flat portion of the fiber on either side of the core. A voltage applied across these contacts will result in an electric field in the core region that can be used for modulating the optical properties of the LiNbO3 layer. To our knowledge this is the first ever LiNbO3 Cylinder Fiber made.

Kornreich, Philip↗

NASA NTRS2004

LiNbO3 Cylinder Fiber

We have successfully fabricate optical fiber with a thin layer of LiNbO3 at the boundary of the glass core and dear glass cladding. The construction of this fiber is based on our successful Semiconductor Cylinder Fibers (SCF). A schematic representation of a LiNbO3 Cylinder Fiber is shown. These fibers can be used as light modulators, sonar detectors and in other applications. The core diameter of the fiber is sufficiently small compared to the light wavelength and the indices of refraction of the core and cladding glasses are sufficiently close in value so that there is sufficient light at the core cladding boundary to interact with the LiNbO3 layer. This fiber functions best when just a single light mode propagates through the fiber. The idea for a LiNbO3 Cylinder Fiber came from Dr. Tracee Jamison of NASA. The optical properties of LiNbO3 can be changed with strain or the application of an electric field. Thus these fibers can be used as acoustic sensors as for example in a sonar. They can also be used as electric field operated light modulators. However, for this application the fibers would be made with a cross section in the form of a 'D'. The core with its surrounding LiNbO, layer would be close to the flat portion of the 'D' shaped fiber. Two metal contacts would be deposited on the flat portion of the fiber on either side of the core. A voltage applied across these contacts will result in an electric field in the core region that can be used for modulating the optical properties of the LiNbO, layer. To our knowledge this is the first ever LiNbO, Cylinder Fiber made.

Source record↗

DOE OSTI2025

Degradation of Fuel Cell Membrane Electrode Assemblies from Buses Operated More than 25,000 h

This study investigates the performance losses and degradation of proton-exchange-membrane fuel-cell stacks taken from the Alameda Contra Costa Transit District (AC Transit) bus system (Alameda and Contra Costa counties, California, United States) that were operated for over 25,000 h. Here, we focus on the origin of differences in electrochemical performance between beginning-of-life (BOL) and end-of-life states as well as diagnostic data acquired during the lifetime of the buses. In doing so, we employ in- and ex- situ characterization methods such as polarization curves, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and X-ray characterization. Uniform degradation of the catalyst layer including Pt agglomeration/migration and electrode thinning was observed in all of the post-teardown measurements compared to BOL materials resulting from years of field operation. Despite these changes, the measured post-teardown performance suggests a sufficient output for the expected load, which indicate factors other than degradation of the membrane-electrode assemblies (MEAs) are likely responsible for the decommissioning of the stacks. The findings indicate that these MEA materials can enable long lifetime in fuel-cell vehicles, if the MEAs are not subjected to adverse operating conditions. The results also highlight the need for more in-vehicle diagnostics to maximize the lifetime of fuel cell vehicle (FCV) powerplants.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

NASA NTRS2017

NEEMO 21: Tools, Techniques, Technologies and Training for Science Exploration

The 21st mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO) was a highly integrated operational field test and evaluation of tools, techniques, technologies, and training for science driven exploration during extravehicular activity (EVA). The mission was conducted in July 2016 from the Aquarius habitat, an underwater laboratory, off the coast of Key Largo in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. An international crew of eight (comprised of NASA and ESA astronauts, engineers, medical personnel, and habitat technicians) lived and worked in and around Aquarius and its surrounding reef environment for 16 days. The integrated testing (both interior and exterior objectives) conducted from this unique facility continues to support current and future human space exploration endeavors. Expanding on the scientific and operational evaluations conducted during NEEMO 20, the 21st NEEMO mission further incorporated a diverse Science Team comprised of planetary geoscientists from the Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science (ARES/XI) Division from the Johnson Space Center, marine scientists from the Department of Biological Sciences at Florida International University (FIU) Integrative Marine Genomics and Symbiosis (IMaGeS) Lab, and conservationists from the Coral Restoration Foundation. The Science Team worked in close coordination with the long-standing EVA operations, planning, engineering, and research components of NEEMO in all aspects of mission planning, development, and execution.

Graff, T.↗

NASA NTRS1993

The measurement and analysis of leaf spectral reflectance of two stands of loblolly pine populations

My research was conducted under the mentorship of Dr. Jeff Luvall. I worked at Marshall from June 1 through August 6, 1993. My proposal is titled 'The Measurement and Analysis of Leaf Spectral Reflectance of Two Stands of Loblolly Pine Populations.' The populations for this study were chosen from a larger population of 31 families managed by the International Forest Seed Company, Odenville, Alabama. The technology for mobile ground base spectral detecting is new and therefore the majority of time, June 2 through July 9, was spent on learning the techniques of the Spectrometer 2 spectroradiometer used in the gathering of spectra information. The activities included in the learning process were as follows: calibration of the equipment, programming the associated computer for data management, operation of the spectral devices, and input and output of data. From July 12 through August 3 the time was spent on learning the 'STATGRAP' computer software. This software will be used in the analysis of the data retrieved by the Spectrometer 2 spectroradiometer. Dr. Greg Carter, at Stennis, a colleague of Dr. Luvall, has been conducting similar work with different instruments and procedures and has agreed to host us for a training session on data gathering and analysis. This visit, which has previously planned for July 9, 1993, but had to be postponed because of schedule conflicts, is now confirmed for August 18-22, 1993. This trip to Stennis will provide the knowledge for conducting the field operations in my study, i.e., gathering of data and file conversions.

Paul, Anthony D.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Integration Process for the Habitat Demonstration Unit

The Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU) is an experimental exploration habitat technology and architecture test platform designed for analog demonstration activities. The HDU previously served as a test bed for testing technologies and sub-systems in a terrestrial surface environment. in 2010 in the Pressurized Excursion Module (PEM) configuration. Due to the amount of work involved to make the HDU project successful, the HDU project has required a team to integrate a variety of contributions from NASA centers and outside collaborators The size of the team and number of systems involved With the HDU makes Integration a complicated process. However, because the HDU shell manufacturing is complete, the team has a head start on FY--11 integration activities and can focus on integrating upgrades to existing systems as well as integrating new additions. To complete the development of the FY-11 HDU from conception to rollout for operations in July 2011, a cohesive integration strategy has been developed to integrate the various systems of HDU and the payloads. The highlighted HDU work for FY-11 will focus on performing upgrades to the PEM configuration, adding the X-Hab as a second level, adding a new porch providing the astronauts a larger work area outside the HDU for EVA preparations, and adding a Hygiene module. Together these upgrades result in a prototype configuration of the Deep Space Habitat (DSH), an element under evaluation by NASA's Human Exploration Framework Team (HEFT) Scheduled activates include early fit-checks and the utilization of a Habitat avionics test bed prior to installation into HDU. A coordinated effort to utilize modeling and simulation systems has aided in design and integration concept development. Modeling tools have been effective in hardware systems layout, cable routing, sub-system interface length estimation and human factors analysis. Decision processes on integration and use of all new subsystems will be defined early in the project to maximize the efficiency of both integration and field operations. In addition a series of tailored design reviews are utilized to quickly define the systems and their integration into the DSH configuration. These processes are necessary to ensure activities, such as partially reversing integration of the X-Hab second story of the HDU and deploying and stowing the new work porch for transportation to the JSC Rock Yard and to the Arizona Black Point Lava Flow Site are performed with minimal or no complications. In addition, incremental test operations leading up to an Integrated systems test allows for an orderly systems test program. For FY-11 activities, the HDU DSH will act as a laboratory utilizing a new X-Hab inflatable second floor with crew habitation features. In addition to the day to day operations involving maintenance of the HDU and exploring the surrounding terrain, testing and optimizing the use of the new X-Hab, work porch, Hygiene Module, and other sub-system enhancements will be the focus of the FY-11 test objectives. The HDU team requires a successful integration strategy using a variety of tools and approaches to prepare the DSH for these test objectives. In a challenging environment where the prototyping influences the system design, as well as Vice versa, results of the HDU DSH field tests will influence future designs of habitat systems.

Gill, Tracy↗

NASA NTRS2000

GLOW: The Goddard Lidar Observatory for Winds

GLOW (Goddard Lidar Observatory for Winds) is a mobile Doppler lidar system which uses direct detection Doppler lidar techniques to measure wind profiles from the surface into the lower stratosphere. The system is contained in a modified van to allow deployment in field operations. The lidar system uses a Nd:YAG laser transmitter to measure winds using either aerosol backscatter at 1064 nm or molecular backscatter at 355 nm. The receiver telescope is a 45 cm Dall-Kirkham which is fiber coupled to separate Doppler receivers, one optimized for the aerosol backscatter wind measurement and another optimized for the molecular backscatter wind measurement. The receivers are implementations of the 'double edge' technique and use high spectral resolution Fabry-Perot etalons to measure the Doppler shift. A 45 cm aperture azimuth-over-elevation scanner is mounted on the roof of the van to allow full sky access and a variety of scanning options. GLOW is intended to be used as a deployable field system for studying atmospheric dynamics and transport and can also serve as a testbed to evaluate candidate technologies developed for use in future spaceborne systems. In addition, it can be used for calibration/validation activities following launch of spaceborne wind lidar systems. A description of the mobile system is presented along with the examples of lidar wind profiles obtained with the system.

Gentry, Bruce M.↗

NASA NTRS2000

GLOW- The Goddard Lidar Observatory for Winds

Gentry, Bruce M.↗

NASA NTRS2009

The Habitat Demonstration Unit System Integration

The Lunar Surface System Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU) will require the project team to integrate a variety of contributions from NASA centers and potential outside collaborators and poses a challenge in integrating these disparate efforts into a cohesive architecture. To accomplish the development of the HDU from conception in June 2009 to rollout for operations in July 2010, the HDU team is using several strategies to mitigate risks and bring the separate efforts together. First, a set of design standards is being developed to define the interfaces between the various systems of HDU and to the payloads, such as the Geology Lab, that those systems will support. Scheduled activities such as early fit-checks and the utilization of a Habitat avionics test bed prior to equipment installation into HDU. A coordinated effort to establish simplified Computer Aided Design standards and the utilization of a modeling and simulation systems will aid in design and integration concept development. Finally, decision processes on the shell development including the assembly sequence and the transportation have been fleshed out early on HDU to maximize the efficiency of both integration and field operations.

Kennedy, Kriss J.↗

NASA NTRS2010

The Habitat Demonstration Unit System Integration

The Lunar Surface System Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU) will require a project team to integrate a variety of contributions from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) centers and potential outside collaborators and poses a challenge in integrating these disparate efforts into a cohesive architecture. To accomplish the development of the first version of the HDU, the Pressurized Excursion Module (PEM), from conception in June 2009 to rollout for operations in July 2010, the HDU project team is using several strategies to mitigate risks and bring the separate efforts together. First, a set of design standards is being developed to define the interfaces between the various systems of PEM and to the payloads, such as the Geology Laboratory, that those systems will support. Scheduled activities such as early fit-checks and the utilization of a habitat avionics test bed prior to equipment installation into HDU PEM are planned to facilitate the integration process. A coordinated effort to establish simplified Computer Aided Design (CAD) standards and the utilization of a modeling and simulation systems will aid in design and integration concept development. Finally, decision processes on the shell development including the assembly sequence and the transportation have been fleshed out early on HDU design to maximize the efficiency of both integration and field operations.

Gill, Tracy R.↗

NASA NTRS2016

A Basic Robotic Excavator (the Glenn Digger): Description, Design, and Initial Operation

This paper describes the design, commercial part selections, fabrication, assembly, installation, and initial operation of a two degree of freedom robotic excavator. Colloquially referred to as "the NASA Glenn Digger," it was designed specifically to be mounted onto, and to operate with, the then newly developed Centaur 2 robotic mobility base. The excavator, when mounted to Centaur 2, is designed to scoop loose regolith from the terrain, raise its loaded bucket up and dump the load into a hopper of at least a 1-m-height. The hopper represents the input to a machine that would process the raw material, such as to produce oxygen from lunar regolith as would be required for long-term lunar habitation. This equipment debuted at the annual Research and Technology Studies ("Desert RATS", Ref. 1) event held north of Flagstaff, Arizona, in September of 2010, when the Digger was successfully joined to Centaur 2 and the shoveling articulation was demonstrated. During 2011, the hardware was modified for added strength, strain gauges were added to measure loads, and the controls were improved in preparation for the 2011 Desert RATS event, where additional "field operations" experience was gained.

backhoe↗