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DOE OSTI2025

Multimodal super-resolution: discovering hidden physics and its application to fusion plasmas

Understanding complex physical systems often requires integrating data from multiple diagnostics, each with limited resolution or coverage. We present a machine learning framework that reconstructs synthetic high-temporal-resolution data for a target diagnostic using information from other diagnostics, without direct target measurements during the inference. This multimodal super-resolution technique improves diagnostic robustness and enables monitoring even in case of measurement failures or degradation. Applied to fusion plasmas, our method targets edge-localized modes (ELMs), which can damage plasma-facing materials. By reconstructing super-resolution Thomson Scattering data from complementary diagnostics, we uncover fine-scale plasma dynamics and validate the role of resonant magnetic perturbations (RMPs) in ELM suppression through magnetic island formation. The approach provides new observation supporting the plasma profile flattening due to these islands. Our results demonstrate the framework’s ability to generate high-fidelity synthetic diagnostics, offering a powerful tool for ELM control development in future reactors like ITER. The approach is broadly transferable to other domains facing sparse, incomplete, or degraded diagnostic data, opening new avenues for discovery.

Jalalvand, Azarakhsh [Princeton Univ., NJ (United ↗

DOE OSTI2025

Effect of resistivity on poloidal asymmetries in electron density in the edge and scrape off layer in 3D full-F gyro-fluid simulations with FELTOR

In this contribution, we analyze the poloidal asymmetries in electron density in the edge and scrape-off layer (SOL) in a COMPASS-sized, diverted tokamak with the 3D full-F, isothermal, electromagnetic, and gyro-fluid model FELTOR. The study is performed for different simulations that span over 2 orders of magnitude in resistivity. The poloidal asymmetries of density are evaluated in the edge and the SOL relative to the outer midplane (OMP), where the highest densities are usually found. In the closed magnetic surfaces, the relative poloidal asymmetry with respect to the OMP is not larger than 20% independently of the plasma resistivity. For the open field lines in the SOL, the relative density asymmetry can range from 55% for the highest resistivity to around 40% for the lowest. The lowest densities inside the separatrix are found between the inner midplane and the top of the magnetic configuration, away from the X-point. In the SOL it is usually close to the X-point in the high field side. The observations in the closed field lines are consistent with ballooning transport but in the SOL oppose experimental evidence for high-density plasmas. In conclusion, this indicates the necessity for more complex physics to reproduce the experimental observations in the SOL for higher density plasmas, such as neutral-plasma dynamics and realistic divertor conditions.

3D full-f gyrofluid↗

DOE OSTI2019

A study of velocity, temperature, and density in the plasma generated by laser-induced breakdowns

The paper presents velocity measurements of shock-induced flow field, leading to vortex generation and plasma deformation in air. Femtosecond-laser electronic excitation tagging (FLEET) velocimetry was performed at the times Δt = 3, 20, 50, and 100 µs post laser-induced breakdown. Emissions over Δt = 3–10 µs showed the propagations of the initially elliptic shock, transitioning into a spherical front. The shock emanated along the laser axis causes the flow outward, and then the pressure gradient generated by the rarefaction wave drives the inward flow at later moments, with the velocity magnitude approaching a steady-state value of 40 m s -1 . Temporal velocity evolution was compared with non-self-similar solutions behind the propagating shock, which are sensitive to the size of the energy deposition, and the use of the measured initial plasma diameter reproduced the experiment. There establishes a region of uniform velocity around 35 m s -1 in the air-flow running through the plasma, which triggers the roll-up of the plasma surface by a large-scale vortex, providing the detail of flow field evolution from the shock propagation to the plasma deformation. A collective Thomson scattering and hybrid fs/ps pure rotational coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) were also performed to gain insight into the high-temperature plasma. An effective electron–ion recombination rate of 2 x 10 -12 cm 3 s -1 was measured at Δt = 0.5–10 µs, during a dynamic plasma expansion and compression. When the shock resides close to the plasma at Δt = 0.5–1 µs, the temperature distributions were found to follow the similarity law.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Microscopic ejecta measurements from hypervelocity impacts on aluminum and powdered regolith targets

Meteoroids and space debris pose a two-fold threat to spacecraft due to the risk of both mechanical damage from the impact and electrical damage from the impact-generated plasma, which produces electromagnetic emissions. Analysis of impact products, however, has the potential to provide useful information about planetary rings and small solar system bodies, such as asteroids and comets. Understanding the plasma dynamics and radiation mechanism is essential to addressing the impact threat and extracting science data from impacts. Charge attachment to condensed-phase debris may lead to a dusty plasma under certain conditions, so interpreting hypervelocity impacts requires knowledge of both the nature of the plasma and of the ejecta. We address the latter with measurements of the microscopic ejecta distribution produced by light gas gun impacts on solid aluminum and powdered regolith simulant targets. We examine both the size and shape of the ejecta using thin-film witness plates and find that the size distributions of microscopic ejecta follow power laws. Observations from the powdered regolith simulant match well with disruption experiments of solid basalt, while measurements from the aluminum impacts diverge from extrapolations based on studies of macroscopic debris. Analysis of the ejecta shape shows a transition from smooth to irregularly shaped ejecta at the material grain size, and the shape of debris may provide insight on the phase of the ejected material. Finally, based on our results, we predict a significant number of secondary impacts on plasma sensors due to ejecta, even at considerable distance from the target, supporting the hypothesis that charged dust affects plasma measurements in the ejecta curtain.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Accelerating kinetic plasma simulations with machine-learning-generated initial conditions

Computational models of plasma technologies often solve for the system operating conditions by time-stepping an initial value problem to a quasi-steady solution. However, the strongly nonlinear and multi-timescale nature of plasma dynamics often necessitate millions, or even hundreds of millions, of steps to reach convergence, reducing the effectiveness of these simulations for computer-aided engineering. We consider acceleration of kinetic plasma simulations via data-driven machine-learning-generated initial conditions, which initialize the simulations close to their final quasi-steady-state, thereby reducing the number of steps to reach convergence. Three machine-learning models are developed to predict the density and ion kinetic profiles of capacitively coupled plasma discharges relevant to the microelectronics industry. The models are trained on kinetic simulations over a range of device operating frequencies and pressures. Best performance was observed when simulations were initialized with ion kinetic profiles generated by a convolutional neural network, reducing the mean number of steps to reach convergence by 17.1× when compared to initialization with a zero-dimensional global model. We also outline a workflow for continuous data-driven model improvement and simulation speedup, with the aim of generating sufficient data for full device digital twins.

Artificial neural networks↗

DOE OSTI2024

High-Fidelity Arc-Discharge Model for Hydrogen-Plasma-Smelting-Reduction of Iron Ore

Electrification and use of renewable hydrogen is currently a necessity for decarbonizing the iron-and-steel industry. In this regard, hydrogen plasma smelting reduction (HPSR) is a novel pathway that is being explored for reduction of iron ore. HPSR provides several decarbonization merits compared to conventional blast furnaces. Firstly, the use of renewable hydrogen drastically reduces the CO2 emissions compared to the use of coke. Secondly, renewable electricity in the form of a thermal plasma for making reactive hydrogen species (radicals, ions) are more efficient at reducing iron ore compared to neutral H2. Thirdly, a molten product compatible with downstream processes is obtained from the intense heat transfer from the plasma. However, the scale-up of this technology requires fundamental exploration of hydrogen plasma dynamics and its interaction with complex solid material that include phase changing iron-ore and slag. In this work, we present a first principles continuum scale model for thermal plasmas in Ar/H2 gas mixtures typically used for HPSR. The thermal plasma governing equations for mass, momentum and energy with Lorentz force and Joule heating source terms are solved along with electromagnetic equations for electrostatic and magnetic vector potential. Our solver will be based on Pele, a suite of reacting flow solvers designed for advanced scientific computing architectures (Henry De Frahan et al., Proceedings of SIAM Parallel Processing, 13-25, 2024), and will utilize adaptive mesh generation for enhanced resolutions at locations of intense physicochemical interactions. This study will present the impact of Ar to H2 ratios on excited/dissociated hydrogen species concentrations, plasma temperature and conductivity along with the impact of outgassed species (water, metal vapor, O, OH radicals) from ore surface on gas phase chemistry. Furthermore, the heat and species flux to the surface will be quantified as a function of applied voltages in a transferred arc configuration.

hydrogen plasma↗

DOE OSTI2021

Active control of electron cyclotron emission radiometer channel frequencies for improved electron temperature measurements

As advanced scenarios are developed for tokamak operations, the demand for flexibility of the electron cyclotron emission (ECE) channels’ locations has increased. The tunable feature of yttrium iron garnet (YIG) filters provides this spatial flexibility. Here, we present a method of performing ECE measurements on fixed flux surfaces instead of fixed frequencies. This is achieved by adjusting YIG filters utilized in the intermediate frequency section to frequencies associated with flux surfaces in regions of interest during the discharge. Here, the key components are the application of tunable YIG filters and a control program that calculates the filter settings using flux information from real-time reconstruction equilibria (EFIT). This fast procedure facilitates T e measurements in regions of interest to investigate plasma dynamic behaviors.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2025

Design and Engineering of LUPIN: A Test-Bed Radio-Frequency Ion Source for Enhanced Neutral Beam Injection on DIII-D

The Large, Uniform Plasma for Ionizing Neutrals (LUPIN) is a radio-frequency (RF) inductively coupled plasma (ICP) chamber for demonstrating plasma performance of an RF ICP positive ion source upgrade for the DIII-D neutral beam injection (NBI) system. LUPIN will be used to investigate ion source physics, including neutral gas dynamics, plasma density uniformity, interactions with Faraday shields, and power coupling to novel RF antenna designs. LUPIN has an RF generator capable of delivering 20 kW of power at 2 MHz, which is coupled into a cylindrical quartz vessel measuring 20 cm in length and 10 cm in radius. This configuration matches the power density requirements for a full-scale ion source. Target hydrogen and deuterium plasma densities exceeding 10 18 m -3 would relate to extracted ion current densities of 2100 A/m 2 for 10s. Vacuum conductance and gas flow calculations predict a maximum achievable neutral gas flow rate of 1675 Pa ⋅ L/s at 5 Pa of He, which mimics the gas flow of the DIII-D NBI system. Designs have been developed for an internal Faraday shield to mitigate heat flux and ion sputtering on the dielectric vessel. Thermomechanical finite element simulations demonstrated the Faraday shield design to be capable of withstanding anticipated heat loads from worst-case operation scenarios. Finally, results of upcoming experimental investigations on LUPIN will guide the design of a full-scale prototype for DIII-D integration.

Faraday shield↗

DOE OSTI2024

Design and Engineering of LUPIN: A Test-Bed Radiofrequency Ion Source for Enhanced Neutral Beam Injection on DIII-D

The Large, Uniform Plasma for Ionizing Neutrals (LUPIN) is an RF inductively coupled plasma (ICP) chamber for demonstrating plasma performance of an RF ICP positive ion source upgrade for the DIII-D Neutral Beam Injection (NBI) system. LUPIN will be used to investigate ion source physics, including neutral gas dynamics, plasma density uniformity, interactions with Faraday shields, and power coupling to novel RF antenna designs. LUPIN has an RF generator capable of delivering 20 kW of power at 2 MHz, which is coupled into a cylindrical quartz vessel measuring 20 cm in length and 10 cm in radius. This configuration matches the power density requirements for a full-scale ion source. Target hydrogen and deuterium plasma densities exceeding 10 18 m -3 would relate to extracted ion current densities of 2100 A/m 2 for 10 s. Vacuum conductance and gas flow calculations predict a maximum achievable neutral gas flow rate of 1675 Pa·L/s at 5 Pa of He, which mimics the gas flow of the DIII-D NBI system. Designs have been developed for an internal Faraday shield to mitigate heat flux and ion sputtering on the dielectric vessel. Thermomechanical finite element simulations demonstrated the Faraday shield design to be capable of withstanding anticipated heat loads from worst-case operation scenarios. Results of upcoming experimental investigations on LUPIN will guide the design of a full-scale prototype for DIII-D integration.

Faraday shield↗

DOE OSTI2025

Capability in Theory, Modeling, and Validation for a Range of Innovative Fusion Concepts using High-Fidelity Moment-Kinetic Models

A computational modeling capability is created and available to the fusion community to understand and design lower-cost and innovative fusion concepts. The approach uses high- fidelity kinetic, moment-kinetic, and moment models and includes sophisticated plasma- boundary interactions. A majority of fusion-relevant simulations are performed with magnetohydrodynamic models and hybrid particle-in-cell codes, with limited-fidelity electron and kinetic physics. However, in fusion configurations like Z-pinches, field-reversed- configurations, plasma jet magneto-inertial fusion, spinning mirrors, and others, kinetic effects (both electron and ions) are critical to understand the physics and design scaling into the highly kinetic regime of a burning fusion plasma. Furthermore, as present fusion machines move towards a burning plasma regime, liquid-metal blankets are needed to handle first-wall heat- flux, reduce erosion, and eventually for energy conversion and fuel breeding. The work performed under this ARPA-E BETHE Capability Team advances the state-of-the-art in modeling and understanding plasma dynamics in fusion devices and its coupling with liquid-metal dynamics. These are critical areas of research for fusion energy to become realizable. To address these complex problems, we have leveraged and extended computational capabilities through the code, Gkeyll (developed jointly with Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and academic partners), for kinetic and moment modeling of fusion plasmas. The Concept Teams supported by this Capability Team include the Wisconsin High-field Axisymmetric Mirror (WHAM), Centrifugal Mirror Experiment (CFME), Plasma-Jet Magneto- Inertial Fusion (PJMIF), and solid and liquid wall plasma-material interaction studies relevant to a number of fusion concepts including Zap Energy’s Z-pinch. This software is open-source and available to the fusion community as a high-fidelity tool for the design of lower-cost fusion experiments. 3D gyrokinetic simulations of WHAM are now possible for long enough time scales to understand the evolution of interchange instabilities. 3D multi-fluid simulations of CMFE at higher Mach numbers are now possible for detailed design iterations with the goal of stability. The state-of-the-art in understanding shock formation and shock mitigation regimes in merging liners for PJMIF have been furthered by our kinetic simulations. Our novel models and frameworks studying plasma-material interaction by incorporating wall emission for various solid wall materials of relevance to pulsed and steady fusion concepts have advanced the state-of-the-art in our understanding of particle fluxes, heat fluxes, and other quantities at cathodes and anodes. The results from this work may explain discrepancies between experimental and theoretical predictions of achieved current densities in pulsed concepts such as Z-pinches. Another significant contribution of this Capability Team is the development and deployment of a novel experimental platform, LEX (Liquid Electrode eXperiment), at Virginia Tech to understand liquid metal free-surface response to electromagnetic pulses. The novel experiments along with model validation quantified the effect of different materials and sizes of liquid metal droplets on the radiative power balance of fusion plasmas for pulsed concepts. Furthermore, these experiments provided mitigation strategies for violent liquid metal response for high current pulses as would be expected in fusion regimes.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Shaping effects on scrape-off layer plasma turbulence: A rigorous validation of three-dimensional simulations against TCV measurements

The effect of plasma shaping on scrape-off layer (SOL) plasma turbulence is investigated through a rigorous validation exercise. Two- and three-dimensional simulations of the SOL plasma dynamics in three TCV limited discharges are carried out with the GBS code. These discharges realize an almost circular magnetic equilibrium, an elongated equilibrium, and an elongated equilibrium with negative triangularity. For the three plasma discharges, three simulations are performed, considering (i) a three-dimensional model with an explicit dependence on elongation, triangularity, and the inverse aspect ratio; (ii) a circular three-dimensional model in the infinite aspect ratio limit; and (iii) a two-dimensional model, which assumes a circular magnetic equilibrium in the infinite aspect ratio limit, cold ions, and interchange driven turbulence in the sheath limited regime. Ten validation observables common to simulations and experimental measurements from a reciprocating probe located at the TCV outer midplane are identified, and the agreement between experimental and numerical results relative to each observable is evaluated. The composite metric introduced by Ricci et al. [Phys. Plasmas 18, 032109 (2011)] is then used to assess the overall agreement between simulations and experimental measurements. It is found that the shaping model implemented in GBS improves the description of SOL plasma turbulence, taking into account the impact of elongation and triangularity.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Collisionless plasma transport mechanisms in stochastic open magnetic field lines in tokamaks

The collisionless plasma transport in stochastic magnetic fields connecting to wall boundary has been studied to understand the underlying mechanisms of thermal quench physics in tokamak disruption. In this study, we present a comprehensive understanding of the plasma dynamics in three-dimensional stochastic open magnetic field lines, taking into account the consistent coupling of electron and ion dynamics through the ambipolar electric field. The open stochastic field lines act as a 3D magnetic mirror consisting of the magnetic well and hill regions. It was found that the magnetic hill regions play a critical role in enhancing electron thermal transport. When the plasma collapses to the wall, the 3D ambipolar potential arises in the stochastic layer to maintain the quasi-neutrality of the plasma. The E × B vortices induced by the 3D ambipolar potential mix the plasma across stochastic field lines and enhance the radial transport. Particularly, the E × B mixing between the magnetic well and hill regions provides a collisionless detrapping mechanism that plays a major role in the loss of high-energy trapped electrons. As a result, the electron temperature steadily decreases at a rate of about -0.5 keV ms -1 , comparable to the rate observed in thermal quench experiments.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Plasma Assisted Combustion and Chemical Processing: Chapter 9 - Plasma Diagnostics

Plasma dynamics and chemistry have a broad range of timescales from picoseconds to milliseconds. In addition, it involves nonequilibrium energy transfer between electrons, ions, electronically and vibrationally excited states, radicals, intermediate species, and reactants and products as well as surface charges and chemistry. To understand plasma physics and chemistry, it is essential to conduct time and space resolved, quantitative detection of nonequilibrium temperature distributions, electron energy and number density, electric field, and species concentrations. There are enormous publications and review articles on this subject. The focus of this chapter is to be placed on the most recent progress in gas phase plasma properties and chemistry, especially on optical emission spectroscopy, laser absorption spectroscopy, Faraday rotational spectroscopy, Raman and Thompson scattering, femtosecond and picosecond (fs/ps) coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) spectroscopy, and electric field-induced second harmonic generation methods.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Electron Drift Kinetics in Space and in the Lab [Slides]

In a magnetized plasma, dynamics are fundamentally split between the directions parallel and perpendicular to the magnetic field. Generally, gyration about the magnetic field will occur on smaller spatial and time scales than the bulk dynamics of the system. From Hamiltonian mechanics, a periodic motion on a time scale much shorter than the other system dynamics leads to an adiabatic invariant. The adiabatic invariant for this motion is the magnetic moment $\mu=\frac{mv⟂^2}{2B}$, which will be approximately conserved.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Data-Enabled Fusion Technology (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

Advancing Scientific Understanding in Fusion Energy and Machine Learning This research represented a significant step forward in machine learning (ML) applications for fusion energy experiments. The project integrated advanced data-driven modeling, optimization techniques, and artificial intelligence to enhance the predictive capabilities and operational efficiency of plasma-based fusion systems. Specifically, tasks focused on ML-enhanced diagnostics, operator guidance tools, and predictive modeling helped improve the ability to interpret complex fusion experiments. Key areas of advancement included: 1) data-driven plasma control, i.e., using ML algorithms to optimize experimental conditions and classify plasma behaviors based on historical data; 2) spectroscopy and diagnostics, i.e., applying AI models to extract previously inaccessible insights from experimental spectroscopy data; and 3) configuration mapping and operator guidance, i.e., developing a predictive framework to assist scientists in identifying the most effective experimental parameters, reducing reliance on manual adjustments. By refining these ML-driven techniques, the project contributed to the broader scientific community’s understanding of plasma dynamics and fusion energy viability. Technical Effectiveness and Economic Feasibility The methods investigated demonstrated high technical effectiveness, as reflected in milestones assessing the predictive accuracy, performance, and optimization of fusion configurations. The development of an Operator Guidance Tool (OGT), for example, led to more precise control of plasma conditions by learning from experimental data and offering real-time adjustments. From an economic standpoint, DeFT provided: 1) the ability to reduce trial-and-error experimentation, which lowered operational costs; 2) improved data interpretation methods, which enabled more efficient resource allocation in large-scale fusion research projects; and 3) the automation of key diagnostic tasks, which reduced manual labor and human error, increasing overall efficiency. 13 The final assessments of predictive models and optimization strategies demonstrated that these approaches were scalable and could be implemented across multiple fusion energy research programs. Public Benefit and Societal Impact This project contributed directly to the broader goal of achieving sustainable and commercially viable fusion energy, which had profound implications for clean energy production and climate change mitigation. The integration of AI-driven solutions into fusion research: 1) sped up scientific discovery, accelerating progress towards achieving energy breakthroughs; 2) reduced the cost of experimentation, making fusion research more accessible; and 3) provided a framework for future AI applications in high-energy physics, benefiting adjacent fields like space exploration, material science, and renewable energy. Additionally, by fostering collaborations between AI researchers and plasma physicists, this project promoted interdisciplinary innovation that could lead to broader applications beyond fusion research.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Revealing the three-dimensional structure of microbunched plasma-wakefield-accelerated electron beams

Abstract Plasma wakefield accelerators use tabletop equipment to produce relativistic femtosecond electron bunches. Optical and X-ray diagnostics have established that their charge concentrates within a micrometre-sized volume, but its sub-micrometre internal distribution, which critically influences gain in free-electron lasers or particle yield in colliders, has proven elusive to characterize. Here, by simultaneously imaging different wavelengths of coherent optical transition radiation that a laser-wakefield-accelerated electron bunch generates when exiting a metal foil, we reveal the structure of the coherently radiating component of bunch charge. The key features of the images are shown to uniquely correlate with how plasma electrons injected into the wake: by a plasma-density discontinuity, by ionizing high- Z gas-target dopants or by uncontrolled laser–plasma dynamics. With additional input from the electron spectra, spatially averaged coherent optical transition radiation spectra and particle-in-cell simulations, we reconstruct coherent three-dimensional charge structures. The results demonstrate an essential metrology for next-generation compact X-ray free-electron lasers driven by plasma-based accelerators.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Applicability of semiclassical theories in the strong-field plasma regime

For many purposes, classical plasma dynamics models can work surprisingly well, even for strong electromagnetic fields, approaching the Schwinger critical fields, and high frequencies, approaching the Compton frequency. However, the applicability of classical models tends to depend rather sensitively on the details of the problem. In the present paper, we study the specific case of plasma oscillations to draw a line between the classical and quantum relativistic regimes. Here, due to the field geometry of study, mechanisms like radiation reaction and Breit-Wheeler pair production, which tend to be important for electromagnetic fields, are rather effectively suppressed. Moreover, we find that the polarization current due to the electron spin is generally negligible for frequencies below the Compton frequency, compared with the free current, whose magnitude is well-approximated by the classical Vlasov theory. However, we show that pair creation due to the Schwinger mechanism can sometimes be important for surprisingly modest field strengths, of the order of 10% of the critical field or even smaller. A rough guideline for when the classical Vlasov theory can be applied is given.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Exploring anomalous electron decay in nanosecond repetitively pulsed discharges

Nanosecond pulsed discharges (typical pulse duration of about 10 nanoseconds) have attracted widespread attention due to their wide range of applications in plasma-assisted combustion and aerodynamic flow control, biomedicine, nanotechnology, and materials processing. This project investigated the plasma dynamics of nanosecond discharges in a pin-to-pin configuration using a combined experimental and theoretical modeling approach, leveraging the expertise and resources of Purdue University and the Princeton Collaborative Research Facility (PCRF).

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗