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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Photoneutron Production Using an Electron Linear Accelerator for Applications in Neutron Imaging

Photoneutron production is possible using an electron linear accelerator and a target capable of generating photonuclear reactions. A short pulse neutron source can be useful for neutron imaging dynamic experiments. This study is aimed at the feasibility of photoneutron production using a 20 MeV electron linear accelerator and tungsten and depleted uranium targets of various thicknesses. MCNP6 (Monte Carlo N-Particle) code will be used to develop a computational model to estimate total neutron yield, and this will be verified at the Idaho State University’s Accelerator Center. After verification of the neutron yield and energy spectra, an additional MCNP6 model will be developed to analyze the neutron imaging processes. This study will potentially prove it is possible to conduct multi-mode imaging experiments on the anticipated Scorpius electron linear accelerator at the Nevada National Security Sites.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Effect of dielectric target properties on plasma surface ionization wave propagation

Surface ionization waves (SIWs) propagating along dielectric covered, grounded surfaces have been studied for various dielectric bulk and surface conditions; a dependence on the propagation velocity with respect to dielectric electrical thickness and near surface permittivity profiles are observed. SIWs generated by an atmospheric pressure plasma source are imaged interacting with planar dielectric surface. Surface wave velocity is obtained by tracking emission intensity as a function of time. Target dielectric thickness is varied from $d = 0.15-10$ mm and dielectric constant is varied from $\epsilon_r = 6.21 - 9.4$. The propagation of SIWs can be generally predicted by relating their velocity to the RC time constant of the circuit generated between the plasma and the dielectric surface, but it is found that this approximation breaks down for dielectric substrates of sufficient thickness and wave velocity becomes constant. The results show that wave velocity is stable and predictable for target thicknesses beyond a certain point determined by the permittivity of the target material. It is also shown that SIW propagation is strongly driven by the dielectric material near to the surface of the target in addition to the bulk material. The possible mechanisms driving these thickness dependent behaviors is discussed.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Observation of high-pressure polymorphs in bulk silicon formed at relativistic laser intensities

Silicon polymorphs with exotic electronic and optical properties have recently attracted significant attention due to their wide range of useful band gap characteristics. They are typically formed by static high-pressure techniques, which limits the crystal structures that can be made. This constitutes a major obstacle to study these polymorphs and their incorporation into existing technology. Approaches have attempted to address this shortcoming through using dynamic conditions and chemical precursor materials. Here, we report on an approach to create unusual crystal structures deep in the bulk of a silicon crystal by irradiating it with a laser pulse at ultrarelativistic intensity of up to 7.5 × 10 19 W/ c m 2 . Laser-generated electrons with MeV energy swiftly penetrate the target with speed close to the speed of light and deposit their energy into a large volume across the whole thickness of the sample. The relativistic electron current creates, via branching propagation and ionization, high-energy-density conditions for thermodynamically nonequilibrium phase transformation paths into new crystal polymorphs. X-ray microdiffraction and synchrotron x-ray diffraction analyses indicate, along with conventional dc-Si, the presence of exotic silicon structures in the bulk of the laser intact target volume. These structures are identified as body-centered bc8-Si, rhombohedral r8-Si, hexagonal-diamond hd-Si, and the tetragonal Si-VIII, all phases of Si that have previously been made through static techniques. Additionally, simple-tetragonal st12-Si and body-centered tetragonal bt8-Si were observed along with signatures of not yet identified diffraction spots. Both st12-Si and bt8-Si have only been observed in ultrafast laser microexplosion conditions at much lower laser intensity ∼ 10 14 W/ c m 2 and within a micron-thin surface layer. The findings here are supported by direct observation of nanoparticles with high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and corresponding fast Fourier transform analysis of their interatomic distances. The presented analyses of absorbed laser energy, generation of the MeV electron current, and deposition of energy across the whole target thickness provide a solid basis for drawing the conclusion that the observed silicon polymorphs were produced because of laser-generated high-energy electrons fast-penetrating deeply into the bulk of silicon. In contrast to solid-solid transformations, the plasma-solid transitions offer a paradigm for the creation of exotic, high-energy density materials inside the bulk of the sample by using laser pulses at relativistic intensities. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2023

Versatile tape-drive target for high-repetition-rate laser-driven proton acceleration

We present the development and characterization of a high-stability, multi-material, multi-thickness tape-drive target for laser-driven acceleration at repetition rates of up to 100 Hz. The tape surface position was measured to be stable on the sub-micrometre scale, compatible with the high-numerical aperture focusing geometries required to achieve relativistic intensity interactions with the pulse energy available in current multi-Hz and near-future higher repetition-rate lasers ( > kHz). Long-term drift was characterized at 100 Hz demonstrating suitability for operation over extended periods. The target was continuously operated at up to 5 Hz in a recent experiment for 70,000 shots without intervention by the experimental team, with the exception of tape replacement, producing the largest data-set of relativistically intense laser–solid foil measurements to date. This tape drive provides robust targetry for the generation and study of high-repetition-rate ion beams using next-generation high-power laser systems, also enabling wider applications of laser-driven proton sources.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Liquid metal-based polarized positron generation benchmark using the GEANT4 toolkit

In this work, we report simulation results for the positron yield and polarization of polarized electron beams incident on GaInSn and PbBi liquid metal targets. One of the proposed upgrades to 12 GeV CEBAF is the use of a continuous wave polarized positron beam for physics experiments. High-Z liquid metal jets are excellent candidates for positron production targets because they can withstand high power beams. Polarized positron beams can be generated from a primary electron beam incident to thick high-Z targets through circular polarized bremsstrahlung conversion to linearly polarized pair production. This polarization transfer from the primary electron beam has been previously demonstrated at Jefferson Lab in the PEPPo experiment with a tungsten target at relatively low energies. Here we report Geant4 simulations for 10 and 120 MeV electron beams incident on GaInSn and PbBi liquid metal targets. These simulations are compared to simulations with a solid tungsten target, as well as with unpolarized simulations using MCNP6.

Lizarraga-Rubio, Victor Manuel↗
DOE OSTI2022

Quantifying spatial resolution in a fast neutron radiography system

Neutron imaging is a powerful nondestructive examination modality that has been employed in various applications. Fast neutrons provide advantages over lower energy neutrons, such as examining thicker samples and inducing negligible activation and transmutations. However, fast neutrons interact mostly via elastic scattering with both the neutron detector and the object, causing degradation in spatial resolution. This study explores the quantification of spatial resolution caused by the testing target itself and suggests proper candidate materials for characterizing spatial resolution in terms of modulation transfer function. Knife-edge radiographs of 3 mm, 6 mm, and 5 cm thick Tantalum (Ta) foils, and a 2.54 cm Tungsten (W) cube were acquired using a CCD-based imaging system and a Polyvinyl Toluene (PVT) scintillator at the Ohio State Research Reactor (OSURR)’s fast neutron beam facility. The spatial resolutions calculated were 195 ± 20 μm, 224 ± 22 μm, 248 ± 25 μm, and 435 ± 44 μm for 3 mm, 6 mm, and 5 cm Ta foils, and 2.54 cm W cube, respectively. The results showed a worsening spatial resolution with increasing target thickness. Simulations and calculations estimate that elastic scattering kinematics between neutrons and protons in the PVT medium also limits spatial resolution, and it sets a lower limit of ~44 μm on the spatial resolution for 2 MeV neutrons.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Swelling and Fission Gas Release of U-10Mo and U-17Mo Following Neutron Irradiation at 250 – 500°C

The performance of metallic fuel alloys, U-10Mo and U-17Mo, was examined using the MiniFuel test system in the High Flux Isotope Reactor. Approximately 0.8 mm thick disks were irradiated at target temperatures of 250°C, 350°C, 450°C, and 500°C up to three different fission densities, culminating at a maximum fission density of 6.8 × 10 20 cm −3 . Fission rates decayed from 3 – 6 × 10 13 cm −3 s −1 to 2 – 4 × 10 13 cm −3 s −1 over the course of the longest, eight cycle, irradiation as the 235 U was consumed and the 239 Pu concentration accumulated. Actual irradiation temperature on the last day of irradiation was measured via dilatometry using the SiC passive thermometry recovered from the MiniFuel subcapsules and compared favorably with the thermal calculations using as-built geometry and test conditions. Furthermore, average simulated temperatures were within 50°C of the target temperatures, except for the 500°C irradiation, for which the temperature variation was 62°C, 32°C, and 90°C in the in two, four, and eight cycle irradiations, respectively. Fission gas release (FGR) measurements showed no release above recoil for any U-17Mo fuels or for the U-10Mo fuel irradiated at 250°C. Finally, significant (40%–80%) FGR was found for the medium- to highest-burnup U-10Mo samples irradiated at target temperatures 350°C–500°C. Significant FGR correlated with sample thickness swelling, which was as high as 13%–35% for high-release samples and below 7% for all other (low–gas release) samples.

FGR↗
DOE OSTI2024

Microjet printing of metal salt or oxide targets for nuclear reaction studies on radionuclides

Radioactive targets for direct measurements of neutron-induced reactions are required to improve evaluated cross-section data and, ultimately, the fidelity of neutron reaction network simulations. Electrodeposition and molecular plating are the current state-of-the-art radioactive target production techniques, but not all metals can be electrodeposited or molecular plated with high yields. Alternative techniques can be expensive or may produce targets that are unsatisfactory in terms of thickness, yield, or purity. Microjet printing is a new, rather inexpensive technique that utilizes equipment with a small footprint and has the potential to produce thin, highly radioactive targets with good uniformity and minimal impurities from the target fabrication process. This study involved optimizing the process of producing microjet printed targets to allow for the fabrication of a stable vanadium(V) oxide (V 2 O 5 ) target that was compared with an analogous electrodeposition V 2 O 5 target manufactured via the application of a vanadium chemical conversion coating on aluminum (Al) foil. Finally, the results from these studies suggest microjet printing could be used to produce relatively uniform target layers with adequate film thicknesses (< 15 μm). V 2 O 5 microjet printed targets, when compared with chemical conversion coating V 2 O 5 targets, appeared to be qualitatively less uniform and quantitatively larger in thickness (11.7(27) μm vs. 5.3(18) μm). However, the conversion coating target contained more impurities and the Al backing had a higher background contribution to measurements of neutron-induced reactions as opposed to targets produced via microjet printing. Overall, the results from this study suggest microjet printing has the capability to be an excellent alternative target production technique to the electrodeposition and molecular plating methods.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of laser-accelerated proton beams from a 0.5 kJ sub-picosecond laser for radiography applications

Laser-accelerated ion beams show promise for many applications, including high-resolution flash imaging of static or dynamic objects in next-generation radiography to probe materials and plasmas in extreme environments and inertial confinement fusion. To scale up ion beam production for radiography applications, we conducted experiments using sub-picosecond lasers up to 0.5 kJ at the OMEGA-EP facility to characterize proton beams from solid targets, primarily CH/CD sub-micron thin films from which ion beams were also used for static and dynamic radiography for the first time. For standalone sub-micron thin CH films, the highest detected proton energy is in the range of 72–97 MeV. Proton beams with highest energy near or above 60 MeV at full laser energy and similar beam profiles are also measured from low-density CD foams and flat CH foil target of micrometer-scale thickness. The ~ 700–800 nm CH/CD foils achieve the highest ion yield among the targets tested. For sub-micron thin films, the laser prepulse can expand the target and lead to complex interactions, which is simulated using coupled hydrodynamic and two-step kinetic models. Simulations suggest the presence of a micrometer-scale preplasma plateau with near-critical density and further indicate that target normal sheath acceleration, electron heating from Relativistic transparency in the preplasma plateau, and background proton reflection from carbon ion front at the rear side contribute to the resulting proton spectrum from these sub-micron thin targets at various stages. These proton beams show strong potential for radiography and for production of secondary sources.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

The effect of laser entrance hole foil thickness on MagLIF-relevant laser preheat

The magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF) scheme relies on coupling laser energy into an underdense fuel raising the fuel adiabat at the start of the implosion. To deposit energy into the fuel, the laser must first penetrate a laser entrance hole (LEH) foil which can be a significant energy sink and introduce mix. In this paper, we report on experiments investigating laser energy coupling into MagLIF-relevant gas cell targets with LEH foil thicknesses varying from 0.5 μm to 3 μm. Two-dimensional (2D) axisymmetric simulations match the experimental results well for 0.5 μm and 1 μm thick LEH foils but exhibit whole-beam self-focusing and excessive penetration of the laser into the gas for 2 μm and 3 μm thick LEH foils. Additionally, better agreement for the 2 μm-thick foil is found when using a different thermal conductivity model in 2D simulations, while only 3D Cartesian simulations come close to matching the 3 μm-thick foil experiments. The study suggests that simulations may over-predict the tendency for the laser to self-focus during MagLIF preheat when thicker LEH foils are used. This effect is pronounced with 2D simulations where the azimuthally symmetric density channel effectively self-focuses the rays that are forced to traverse the center of the plasma. The extra degree of freedom in 3D simulations significantly reduces this effect. The experiments and simulations also suggest that, in this study, the amount of energy coupled into the gas is highly correlated with the laser propagation length regardless of the LEH foil thickness.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Structure studies of 13 Be from the 12 Be ⁢(𝑑,𝑝) reaction in inverse kinematics on a solid deuteron target

The low-lying structure of 13 Be has remained an enigma for decades. Despite numerous experimental and theoretical studies, large inconsistencies remain. Being both unbound and one neutron away from 14 Be, the heaviest bound beryllium nucleus, 13 Be is difficult to study through simple reactions with weak radioactive-ion beams or more complex reactions with stable-ion beams. Here, we present the results of a study using the 12 Be (𝑑,𝑝)⁢ 13 Be reaction in inverse kinematics using a 9.5 MeV per nucleon 12 Be beam from the ISAC-II facility. The solid deuteron target of IRIS was used to achieve an increased areal thickness compared to conventional deuterated polyethylene targets. The 𝑄-value spectrum below −4.4 MeV was analyzed using a Bayesian method with geant4 simulations. A three-point angular distribution with the same 𝑄-value gate was fit with a mixture of 𝑠- and 𝑝-wave, 𝑠- and 𝑑-wave, or pure 𝑝-wave transfer. The 𝑄-value spectrum was also compared with geant simulations obtained using the energies and widths of states reported in four previous works. As a result, it was found that our results are incompatible with works that revealed a wide 5/2 + resonance but shows better agreement with ones that reported a narrower width.

6 ≤ A ≤ 19↗
DOE OSTI2023

The influence of thermomechanical treatment pathways on texture and mechanical properties in ARB Cu/Nb nanolaminates

Accumulative roll-bonded Cu/Nb nanolaminates (ARB Cu/Nb) possess high strength, thermal stability, and radiation tolerance arising from a high content of heterophase interfaces at fine layer thicknesses. These properties can be tailored by processing parameters used in the ARB Cu/Nb fabrication process, in which layer thickness, thermal history, and strain pathway determine the interface types and resultant properties found in the material. In this work, we subject ARB Cu/Nb to annealing, and then two different rolling pathways – one where rolling direction is held constant (longitudinal rolling, or LR), and one where rolling direction is rotated by 90º and held constant thereafter (cross rolling, or CR). Rolling is performed on ARB Cu/Nb over a targeted range of layer thicknesses from 193 to 25 nm and resultant bulk textures measured by neutron diffraction are correlated with mechanical properties measured by miniaturized tensile tests. The annealing procedure sharpens texture in both phases. We find that Cu mostly develops the same texture in LR and CR. In contrast, Nb develops a distinct texture along the CR pathway that is distinct from the LR texture. The composite texture of Cu/Nb is thus distinct between LR and CR pathways. This difference in texture development between Cu and Nb as a function of strain after change in rolling direction demonstrates the viability for deliberate pairing of Cu LR and Nb CR textures at a desired layer thickness. For mechanical properties, we find that differences in texture do not result in yield or flow stress differences above a layer thickness of 25 nm. Below a layer thickness of 25 nm, despite similar Taylor factors, yield and flow stress and are significantly different. In conclusion, this indicates texture only influences mechanical behavior at low layer thickness, where interface structure dominates mechanical properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Sustainable production of radionuclidically pure antimony-119

Background Radiopharmaceutical therapy (RPT) uses radionuclides that decay via one of three therapeutically relevant decay modes (alpha, beta, and internal conversion (IC) / Auger electron (AE) emission) to deliver short range, highly damaging radiation inside of diseased cells, maintaining localized dose distribution and sparing healthy cells. Antimony-119 ( 119 Sb, t 1/2 = 38.19 h, EC = 100%) is one such IC/AE emitting radionuclide, previously limited to in silico computational investigation due to barriers in production, chemical separation, and chelation. A theranostic (therapeutic/diagnostic) pair can be formed with 119 Sb’s radioisotopic imaging analogue 117 Sb (t 1/2 = 2.80 h, E γ = 158.6 keV, I γ = 85.9%, β + = 262.4 keV, I β+ = 1.81%). Results Within, we report techniques for sustainable and cost-effective production of pre-clinical quality and quantity, radionuclidically pure 119 Sb and 117 Sb, novel low energy photon measurement techniques for 119 Sb activity determination, and physical yields for various tin target isotopic enrichments and thicknesses using (p, n) and (d, n) nuclear reactions. Additionally, we present a two-column separation providing a radioantimony yield of 73.1% ± 6.9% (N = 3) and tin separation factor of (6.8 ± 5.5) x 10 5 (N = 3). Apparent molar activity measurements for deuteron produced 117 Sb using the chelator TREN-CAM were measured at 42.4 ± 25 MBq 117 Sb/µmol (1.14 ± 0.68 mCi/µmol), and we recovered enriched 119 Sn target material at a recycling efficiency of 80.2% ± 5.5% (N = 6) with losses of 11.6 mg ± 0.8 mg (N = 6) per production. Conclusion We report significant steps in overcoming barriers in 119 Sb production, chemical isolation and purification, enriched target material recycling, and chelation, helping promote accessibility and application of this promising therapeutic radionuclide. We describe a method for 119 Sb activity measurement using its low energy gamma (23.87 keV), negating the need for attenuation correction. Finally, we report the largest yet-measured 119 Sb production yields using proton and deuteron irradiation of natural and enriched targets and radioisotopic purity > 99.8% at end of purification.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
DOE OSTI2026

Sputter coating of Nb₃Sn into SRF cavity using stoichiometric target

Nb₃Sn has emerged as a leading alternative material due to its higher superconducting critical temperature (Tc) and superheating field (Hsh), promising a viable solution to the intrinsic performance limit currently faced by Nb superconducting radiofrequency (SRF) cavities. We sputter-coated Nb₃Sn inside Nb SRF cavity using a stoichiometric Nb₃Sn tube target in a DC cylindrical magnetron sputter coater. The target was fabricated by growing an estimated >20 μm thick Nb₃Sn layer on a Nb tube via Sn vapor diffusion using Jefferson Lab’s coating system. Approximately 150 nm thick Nb-Sn films were sputter-deposited onto flat Nb samples at positions representing the beam tubes and equator of a 2.6 GHz Nb cavity. Post-deposition annealing at 950 °C for 3 h resulted in the formation of Nb₃Sn. Microstructural analysis of the annealed films was carried out to investigate the morphology and structure of the Nb₃Sn films. Later, a 2.6 GHz Nb SRF cavity was coated with a ~1.2 μm thick sputtered Nb-Sn film using a stoichiometric Nb₃Sn target, followed by annealing. Cryogenic RF testing of the annealed cavity demonstrated a Tc of 17.8 K, indicating the formation of Nb₃Sn. After a light Sn recoating treatment, the cavity achieved a quality factor (Q0) of 6.7E+08 at lower field at 2.0 K.

Accelerator Physics↗
DOE OSTI2021

Absorption of relativistic multi-picosecond laser pulses in wire arrays

We study the interaction of intense multi-picosecond laser pulses with arrays of carbon wires attached to solid substrates. Here, we find that laser absorption in wire arrays resembles that in flat targets with very large uniform plasma density gradients. Performing two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations, we optimize target parameters like wire thickness and -distance for energy absorption of a 2picosecond laser pulse with a large focal spot; this has implications for x-ray- and charged particle source development.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Implementing Large-Scale CCS in Complex Geologic Reservoirs: Insights from Three Appalachian Basin Case Studies

This paper presents three design case studies for implementing large-scale geologic carbon storage in the Appalachian Basin region of the midwestern United States. While the Appalachian Basin has a challenging setting for carbon storage, the three case studies detailed in this article demonstrate that there are realistic options for implementing carbon storage in the basin. Carbonate rock formations, depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, and moderate-porosity sandstones can be utilized as carbon-storage reservoirs in the Appalachian Basin. While these are not typical concepts for CO2 storage, the storage zones have advantages such as defined trapping mechanisms, multiple caprocks, and defined boundaries that are not always present in thick, permeable sandstones being targeted for many carbon-storage projects. The geologic setting, geotechnical parameters, and hydrologic setting for the three case studies are provided, along with the results of reservoir simulations of the CO2 injection-deployment strategies. The geological rock formations available for CO2 storage in the Appalachian Basin are more localized reservoirs with defined boundaries and finite storage capacities. Simulation results showed that accessing carbon-storage resources in these fields may require wellfields with 2–10 injection wells. However, these fields would have the capacity to inject 1–3 million metric tons of CO2 per year and up to 90 million metric tons of CO2 in total. The CO2 storage resources would fulfill decarbonization goals for many of the natural-gas power plants, cement plants, hydrogen plants, and refineries in the Appalachian Basin region.

Sminchak, Joel↗
DOE OSTI2020

Subtask 1.3 – Integrated Carbon Capture and Storage for North Dakota Ethanol Production

The Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC), in partnership with Red Trail Energy, LLC (RTE), a North Dakota ethanol producer; the North Dakota Industrial Commission (NDIC) Renewable Energy Program (REP); and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), conducted a feasibility and implementation study for a commercial carbon capture and storage (CCS) effort. This subtask provided technical support and developed recommended practices of how small-scale industrial CO2 emitters (<1,000,000 tonnes of CO2 emitted annually) may economically deploy CCS. The 64-million-gallon dry mill RTE ethanol facility, emitting an average 180,000 tonnes of CO2 annually, was the subject of the case study. The positive outcome of this research, which shows technical and economic potential for ethanol–CCS in North Dakota, has resulted in RTE acquiring an approved Permit to Drill on December 2, 2019, for a stratigraphic test well in early 2020, a necessary step toward a North Dakota CO2 Storage Facility Permit (SFP) for the RTE CCS effort. Outcomes include 1) validating the Broom Creek Formation as a regional target for CCS, 2) determining the full carbon life cycle of an industrial fuel production facility with CCS, 3) developing a field implementation plan (FIP) for small-scale CCS, and 4) determining the validity and pathway for using CCS to meet low-carbon fuel (LCF) standards. The technical team included the EERC, RTE, Trimeric Corporation, Schlumberger Carbon Services, and Computer Modelling Group (CMG). Findings from activities conducted November 2016 – May 2020 are summarized as follows. Several key steps have been accomplished toward validating the Broom Creek Formation as a CO2 injection and storage target at the RTE CCS site, including verification of the presence and structure of sandstone layers that may comprise the potential CO2 storage reservoir and the several thousand feet of overlying confining zone. Work included site characterization using existing data, interpretation of seismic data within the study area, and geologic modeling simulation of CO2 injection. Interpreted results estimate 3000 feet of confining zone between the Broom Creek Formation (storage target) and the lowermost underground source of drinking water (e.g., the Fox Hills Formation). The thickness of the Broom Creek injection target varies 230–420 ft within the survey area. Results were used to inform the location of a stratigraphic test well and associated characterization test program. No impediments were identified within the targeted CO2 storage complex that would prevent the project from moving forward. A stratigraphic test well is the next step to validate these results and to acquire remaining data necessary to develop a North Dakota CO2 SFP application. The EERC generated full carbon life cycle estimates for CCS integration with the RTE ethanol facility. Results indicated that an average 40% reduction in CO2 emissions is possible through CCS implementation. Approximately half of the carbon in the overall life cycle for a dry mill ethanol plant is generated through the fermentation process and emitted to the atmosphere; this is the CO2 stream targeted for CCS. The remaining carbon is attributed to corn feedstock farming (diesel, fertilizer), energy for fuel processing (natural gas, electricity), and transportation (diesel) of the fuel product. Life cycle carbon estimates are also affected by the anticipated energy consumption of a potential capture facility, which depend on the type of CO2 product generated. For example, a 30%–40% net CO2 emission reduction is estimated if a liquefied CO2 facility were incorporated compared to a 40%–50% net CO2 reduction if a supercritical “injection-grade” CO2 product is generated; i.e., more energy is required to further refine the CO2 stream, affecting the full carbon life cycle estimates. A CCS FIP was developed and initiated at the RTE CCS site, resulting in the development of several guidance documents: a CO2 Capture Process Design Package, a North Dakota CO2 geologic Storage Permits Template, and a Public Outreach Package for CCS in North Dakota. General FIP components include CO2 capture system, pipeline and well designs; monitoring, verification, and accounting (MVA) plans; geologic characterization and testing programs; and permitting and outreach plans. Vendor bids were also acquired for the CO2 liquefaction facility. Near-surface characterization (groundwater and soil gas sampling) and geologic characterization (seismic survey) were initiated to inform development of a UIC Class VI-compliant MVA plan compliant with a North Dakota CO2 SFP. Designs (well and geologic testing) were completed for a stratigraphic test well compliant with a North Dakota CO2 SFP. In addition, the outreach plan was executed, including community open houses, meetings with city/county/state officials, and development of public materials. Although other entities continued to mature incentive programs in 2019–2020, California and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) currently provide the most advanced economic opportunities for CCS integrated with fuel production. The California Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) adopted a CCS Protocol in January 2019, allowing submittal of a design-based pathway (DBP) application for an approved temporary (not certified) carbon intensity value for a fully engineered facility. An ethanol–CCS DBP application to the California LCFS Program (officially approved February 28, 2020) was developed to show that the RTE CCS effort meets LCFS requirements. The approved DBP provides confidence to advance the project and supports potential investments. Other entities continue to mature incentive programs. The IRS issued guidance in February 2020 that addresses the definition of beginning of construction and revenue procedure on partnerships for the Enhancement of Carbon Dioxide Sequestration Credit (a.k.a. Section 45Q) CCS tax credit program; the IRS anticipates issuing further guidance on issues such as secure geologic storage, utilization qualifications, and recapture of claimed credits. Maturing incentive programs coupled with workable permitting regulations provide confidence to advance CCS projects in North Dakota and support financial investment to proceed with designing, constructing, and implementing CCS projects at small-scale fuel production facilities. The largest hurdles for CCS implementation at small-scale industrial systems are often business/economic-related (i.e., not technical). Market uncertainty already exists for agriculture-based alternative fuels such as corn ethanol, for which production has increased by ~33%, and prices have correspondingly lowered since 2015. Passing the Section 45Q tax credit program improves economic feasibility for CCS but may require external investors for a small business to achieve maximum benefits. Public–private partnerships with NDIC and DOE have resulted in foundational technical and regulatory knowledge, growing stakeholder confidence, and a pathway to implementation that enables similar industrial CCS projects in the region to advance. This subtask was funded through the EERC–DOE Joint Program on Research and Development for Fossil Energy-Related Resources Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FE0024233. Nonfederal funding was provided by NDIC and RTE. The authors would also like to thank CMG, ESRI, IHS, Neuralog, and Schlumberger for allowing the use of their software packages in support of this work.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Flux and estimated spectra from a low-intensity laser-driven X-ray source

Laser-driven X-rays as probes for high-energy-density physics spans an extremely large parameter space with laser intensities varying by 8 orders of magnitude. We have built and characterized a soft X-ray source driven by a modest intensity laser of 4 × 10 13 W/cm 2 . Emitted X-rays were measured by diamond radiation detectors and a filtered soft X-ray camera. A material-dependence study on Al, Ti, stainless steel alloy 304, Fe, Cu and Sn targets indicated 5-μm-thick Cu foils produced the highest X-ray yield. X-ray emission in the laser direction and emission in the reverse direction depend strongly on the foil material and the thickness due to the opacity and hydrodynamic disassembly time. The time-varying X-ray signals are used to measure the material thinning rate and is found to be ~1.5 μm/ns for the materials tested implying thermal temperature around 0.6 eV. The X-ray spectra from Cu targets peaks at ~2 keV with no emission >4 keV and was estimated using images with eight different foil filters. One-dimensional hydrodynamic and spectral calculations using HELIOS-CR provide qualitative agreement with experimental results. Modest intensity lasers can be an excellent source for nanosecond bursts of soft X-rays.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗