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DOE OSTI2021

Long-life LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 /graphite lithium-ion cells with an artificial graphite-electrolyte interface

The high operating voltage of a spinel LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 (LNMO) cathode leads to electrolyte decomposition and accelerated deterioration of the electrode/electrolyte interface in lithium-ion cells. Aggressive side reactions prevent long-term cycling and hinder its practical application. Advanced characterization shows that the high-voltage operation makes the graphite anode react with the electrolyte, particularly with the lithium salt in the electrolyte, resulting in massive active lithium inventory loss and capacity fade. The side reactions at the graphite are identified as the main culprit for the LNMO/graphite full cell decay. Here, we demonstrate that an artificial solid-electrolyte interface layer consisting of an ultra-thin Al 2 O 3 film, generated via atomic layer deposition (ALD) at the graphite surface, can successfully isolate the graphite from the electrolyte and inhibit the undesired reactions. Consequently, the capacity and cycling stability of the LNMO/graphite cell are drastically improved. After 300 cycles, the capacity retention of LNMO/graphite cell increases from 57.7% to 98.6% with the ALD-coated graphite. Furthermore, our findings provide valuable insights into the LNMO/graphite cell degradation and suggest a simple and robust, yet highly effective, approach for the practical viability of high-voltage lithium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Comprehensive Cradle to Grave Life Cycle Analysis of On-Road Vehicles in the United States based on GREET

To properly compare and contrast the environmental performance of one vehicle technology against another, it is necessary to consider their production, operation, and end-of-life fates. Since 1995, Argonne’s GREET® life cycle analysis model (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies) has been annually updated to model and refine the latest developments in fuels and materials production, as well as vehicle operational and composition characteristics. Updated cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis results from the model’s latest release are described for a wide variety of fuel and powertrain options for U.S. light-duty and medium/heavy-duty vehicles. Light-duty vehicles include a passenger car, sports utility vehicle (SUV), and pick-up truck, while medium/heavy-duty vehicles include a Class 6 pickup-and-delivery truck, Class 8 day-cab (regional) truck, and Class 8 sleeper-cab (long-haul) truck. Powertrain coverage includes internal combustion (spark ignition and compression ignition) engines, hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid, full battery electric, and fuel cell vehicles powered by conventional and low carbon energy sources. The results offer insights into the current state of these technologies, as well as a projection of the likely environmental implications of future fuel and vehicle advancements through a time-series evaluation of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions.

Kelly, Jarod C.↗

NASA NTRS2019

An Automatic Light Rain Detection Algorithm on NASA MPLNET Lidar Observations in the Frame of WMO GALION Project

The water cycle strongly influences life on Earth. In particular, the precipitation modifies the atmospheric column thermodynamics through the process of evaporation and serves as a proxy for latent heat modulation. For this reason, a correct precipitation parameterization (especially low-intensity precipitation) at global scale, bedsides improving our understanding of the hydrological cycle, it is crucial to reduce the associated uncertainty of the global climate models to correctly forecast future scenarios, i.e. to apply fast mitigation strategies. In this study we developed an algorithm to automatically detect precipitation from lidar measurements obtained by the National and Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) Micropulse lidar network (MPLNET) permanent observational site in Goddard. The algorithm, once full operational, will deliver in Near Real Time (latency 1.5h) a new rain mask product that will be publicly available on MPLNET website as part of the new Version 3 Level 1.5 data. The methodology, based on an image processing technique, can detect only light precipitation events (defined by intensity and duration) as the morphological filters used through the detection process are applied on the lidar volume depolarization ratio range corrected composite images, i.e. heavy rain events are unusable as the lidar signal is completely extinguished after few meters in the precipitation or no signal detected because of the water accumulated on the receiver optics. Results from the algorithm, besides filling a gap in precipitation and virga detection by radars, are of particular interest for the scientific community because will help to better understand long-term aerosol-cloud interactions and aerosol atmospheric removal (scavenging effect) by rain as multi-year database being available for several MPLNET permanent observational sites across the globe. Moreover, we developed the automatic algorithm at Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC) Barcelona, the unique permanent observation station member of MPLNET and the European Aerosol Lidar Network (EARLINET) In the future the algorithm can be then easily applied to any other lidar and/or ceilometer network infrastructure in the frame of World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Aerosol Watch (GAW) aerosol lidar observation network (GALION)

Simone Lolli↗

NASA NTRS2021

Features and Characteristics of the New NASA MicroPuLse NETwork (MPLNET) Automatic Rain Detection Algorithm

S. Lolli↗

NASA NTRS1992

Nuclear thermal propulsion transportation systems for lunar/Mars exploration

Nuclear thermal propulsion technology development is underway at NASA and DoE for Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) missions to Mars, with initial near-earth flights to validate flight readiness. Several reactor concepts are being considered for these missions, and important selection criteria will be evaluated before final selection of a system. These criteria include: safety and reliability, technical risk, cost, and performance, in that order. Of the concepts evaluated to date, the Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Applications (NERVA) derivative (NDR) is the only concept that has demonstrated full power, life, and performance in actual reactor tests. Other concepts will require significant design work and must demonstrate proof-of-concept. Technical risk, and hence, development cost should therefore be lowest for the concept, and the NDR concept is currently being considered for the initial SEI missions. As lighter weight, higher performance systems are developed and validated, including appropriate safety and astronaut-rating requirements, they will be considered to support future SEI application. A space transportation system using a modular nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) system for lunar and Mars missions is expected to result in significant life cycle cost savings. Finally, several key issues remain for NTR's, including public acceptance and operational issues. Nonetheless, NTR's are believed to be the 'next generation' of space propulsion systems - the key to space exploration.

Clark, John S.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Electrochemical Reduction of Flue Gas Carbon Dioxide to Commercially Viable C2-C4 Products (Final Report)

This is the final scientific/technical report for a DOE project focused on the electrochemical conversion of CO 2 in non-aqueous solvents to novel products. Electrochemical reduction of CO 2 provides an attractive route to produce valuable fuels and chemicals that can simultaneously lower greenhouse gas emissions when powered by renewable electricity. While recent technological advances have shown the feasibility of industrial CO 2 electroreduction, many challenges remain to improve this technology and expand the list of economically viable products. The vast majority of electrochemical CO 2 reduction research has been conducted in aqueous media under neutral to alkaline conditions, leading to commonly reported products including carbon monoxide, formic acid, methane, methanol, ethylene, acetic acid, and ethanol. In comparison, non-aqueous media for CO 2 reduction has been underexplored but represents a possible avenue to yield new products and improved operating conditions. The aim of the project was to convert waste CO 2 in the form of flue gas to a multicarbon C2 - C4 chemical product in a reactor designed to achieve economically competitive values of current density and selectivity. The project strived to advance the technology readiness of an electrochemical CO 2 reduction process in alcohol solvents from the proof-of-concept stage to a device capable of meeting performance metrics for commercial viability. In the initial plan, the University of Louisville researchers were to focus on investigating the electrochemical process and improving the faradaic efficiency for novel C2 – C4 species, while also working on a parallel effort to build a practical electrolysis reactor to markedly increase the CO 2 reduction current density. The reactor development effort also aimed to engineer a dual-electrolyte feed strategy with non-aqueous catholyte and aqueous anolyte to promote water oxidation as the coupling anodic half-reaction to enable a sustainable and economical overall process. At the outset, the University of North Dakota was to investigate the feasibility of operating directly from coal-derived flue gas without separate capture and purification. The research team sought to determine impurity effects and test mitigation strategies, as well as engineer the gaseous feed system for high reactor tolerance to lower CO 2 concentration. In the last half year of the project, the focus was planned to shift to integrating the advances in the catalysis, electrochemical conditions, reactor design, and flue gas compatibility into a fully functional device and improve it for maximum current density and faradaic efficiency for C2 – C4 species. Knowledge of the full system components, constraints, and maximum performance was then to be used as the basis for a thorough technoeconomic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA) at the end of the project.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2021

Long-Term Cycling of a Mn-Rich High-Voltage Spinel Cathode by Stabilizing the Surface with a Small Dose of Iron

The high-voltage, cobalt-free spinel cathode LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 (LNMO) is receiving extensive attention for lithium-ion batteries due to its low cost, high operating voltage and energy density, superior power density, and good thermal stability. However, its high operating voltage hampers its stability with commercial electrolytes and makes its practical viability challenging. We present here a Mn-rich LNMO cathode to encourage the disordering of Mn and Ni in the lattice and the incorporation of a small dose of Fe into Mn-rich LNMO (Fe-LNMO) to improve the cycling stability. The introduction of Fe further increases the cation disorder between Mn and Ni, thus enabling a better rate capability. Electron energy loss spectroscopy analysis indicates that Fe is concentrated on the surface, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis shows that Fe-LNMO alleviates the aggressive reaction between the cathode surface and the electrolyte, thus stabilizing the interface and cycle life. Furthermore, a full cell assembled with a graphite anode with an areal capacity of 3 mA h cm –2 displays a capacity retention of 90% over 300 cycles. Furthermore, the present work demonstrates an effective way to promote cation disordering and lower the surface reactivity of LNMO with the electrolyte, thereby enhancing the conductivity, stabilizing the cathode–electrolyte interphase, and making LNMO promising for practical applications.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

NASA NTRS2023

Ames Contrail Simulation Model: Modeling Aviation Induced Contrails and the Computation of Contrail Radiative Forcing Using Air Traffic Data

NASA is developing traffic flow management strategies to reduce the impact of aviation on climate and improve efficiency of aircraft routes in the presence of limited airport and airspace capacity constraints, which are partly due to convective weather and natural calamities. Development of Strategic Traffic Flow Management (STFM) requires models of aircraft emissions and contrails, and models of their effect on climate. There is extensive literature on the modeling of contrails and the Radiative Forcing (RF) associated with contrails. This report captures the latest NASA developments in this research area and describes the integrated modeling, analysis, and software development to support STFM. Aircraft contrails are long, thin and often linear clouds triggered by aircraft engine exhausts in the high-altitude ice-saturated atmosphere. Contrails, similar to that of natural cirrus clouds, can impact global climate by reflecting shortwave radiation and trapping longwave radiation. Recent studies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have shown that aircraft contrails are estimated to have greater impact on global warming than aircraft CO 2 emissions. The Ames Contrail Simulation Model (ACSM) presented in this report simulates the full life cycle of aircraft contrails, including their formation, dynamic evolution, and dissipation, and calculates the associated RF with actual meteorological and air traffic data. ACSM combines models from previous studies that focus on contrail formation and persistence based on the Schmidt-Appleman theoretical criteria, and it incorporates elements of cloud dynamics, microphysics, and climate modeling found in other surveyed contrail models, while also making adjustment for improved computational efficiency. In addition, ACSM is integrated with NASA's state-of-the-art flight simulation software for rapid assessment of aircraft contrail impacts. Applications include assessments of long-term global climate impact resulting from aviation-induced contrails and the design of optimal contrail-mitigation aircraft operation strategies.

aviation contrails↗

NASA NTRS1972

Premium quality 5A1-2.5 Sn ELI titanium production

Preliminary design and reliability analysis conducted on the turbopump for the NERVA 75,000 full flow cycle engine, indicated that the turbopump bearings were the most critical turbopump parts in meeting the 10 hour life at the required turbopump reliability of .99978. The analysis revealed that significant reductions (approximately a factor of 3.25) in bearing loads would be achieved by fabricating the rotating parts from titanium in lieu of A286 or 718. This is basically due to the difference in density of the materials and the resulting mass effect on the location of the first and second stick mode critical speeds. For the selected rotor configuration, the lighter material has a first critical speed at approximately 36,000 rpm, while that of the heavier material has a first critical at approximately 27,000 rpm. As the operating range of the turbopump is from 0 to 30,000 rpm, the heavier material would have a stick mode critical in the operating range.

Dessau, P. P.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Advanced single permanent magnet axipolar ironless stator ac motor for electric passenger vehicles

A program was conducted to design and develop an advanced-concept motor specifically created for propulsion of electric vehicles with increased range, reduced energy consumption, and reduced life-cycle costs in comparison with conventional systems. The motor developed is a brushless, dc, rare-earth cobalt, permanent magnet, axial air gap inductor machine that uses an ironless stator. Air cooling is inherent provided by the centrifugal-fan action of the rotor poles. An extensive design phase was conducted, which included analysis of the system performance versus the SAE J227a(D) driving cycle. A proof-of-principle model was developed and tested, and a functional model was developed and tested. Full generator-level testing was conducted on the functional model, recording electromagnetic, thermal, aerodynamic, and acoustic noise data. The machine demonstrated 20.3 kW output at 1466 rad/s and 160 dc. The novel ironless stator demonstated the capability to continuously operate at peak current. The projected system performance based on the use of a transistor inverter is 23.6 kW output power at 1466 rad/s and 83.3 percent efficiency. Design areas of concern regarding electric vehicle applications include the inherently high windage loss and rotor inertia.

Beauchamp, E. D.↗

NASA NTRS2003

VPS GRCop-84 Liner Development Efforts

For the past several years, NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) has been working with Plasma Processes, Inc. (PPI) to fabricate combustion chamber liners using the Vacuum Plasma Spray (VPS) process. Multiple liners of a variety of shapes and sizes have been created. Each liner has been fabricated with GRCop-84 (a copper alloy with chromium and niobium) and a functional gradient coating (FGC) on the hot wall. While the VPS process offers versatility and a reduced fabrication schedule, the material system created with VPS allows the liners to operate at higher temperatures, with maximum blanch resistance and improved cycle life. A subscal unit (5K lbf thrust class) is being cycle tested in a LOX/Hydrogen thrust chamber assembly at MSFC. To date, over 75 hot-fire tests have been accumulated on this article. Tests include conditions normally detrimental to conventional materials, yet the VPS GRCop-84 liner has yet to show any signs of degradation. A larger chamber (15K lbf thrust class) has also been fabricated and is being prepared for hot-fire testing at MSFC near the end of 2003. Linear liners have been successfully created to further demonstrate the versatility of the process. Finally, scale up issues for the VPS process are being tackled with efforts to fabricate a full size, engine class liner. Specifically, a liner for the SSME's Main Combustion Chamber (MCC) has recently been attempted. The SSME size was chosen for convenience, since its design was readily available and its size was sufficient to tackle specific issues. Efforts to fabricate these large liners have already provided valuable lessons for using this process for engine programs. The material quality for these large units is being evaluated with destructive analysis and these results will be available by the end of 2003.

Elam, Sandra K.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Testing and Results of Vacuum Swing Adsorption Units for Spacesuit Carbon Dioxide and Humidity Control

A principal concern for extravehicular activity (EVA) spacesuits is the capability to control carbon dioxide (CO2) and humidity (H2O) for the crewmember. The release of CO2 in a confined or unventilated area is dangerous for human health and leads to asphyxiation; therefore, CO2 and H2O control become leading factors in the design and development of the spacesuit. An amine-based CO2 and H2O vapor sorbent for use in pressure-swing regenerable beds has been developed by Hamilton Sundstrand. The application of solidamine materials with vacuum swing adsorption technology has shown the capacity to concurrently manage CO2 and H2O levels through a fully regenerative cycle eliminating mission constraints imposed with nonregenerative technologies. Two prototype solid amine-based systems, known as rapid cycle amine (RCA), were designed to continuously remove CO2 and H2O vapor from a flowing ventilation stream through the use of a two-bed amine based, vacuum-swing adsorption system. The Engineering and Science Contract Group (ESCG) RCA implements radial flow paths, whereas the Hamilton Sundstrand RCA was designed with linear flow paths. Testing was performed in a sea-level pressure environment and a reduced-pressure environment with simulated human metabolic loads in a closed-loop configuration. This paper presents the experimental results of laboratory testing for a full-size and a sub-scale test article. The testing described here characterized and evaluated the performance of each RCA unit at the required Portable Life Support Subsystem (PLSS) operating conditions. The test points simulated a range of crewmember metabolic rates. The experimental results demonstrated the ability of each RCA unit to sufficiently remove CO2 and H2O from a closed loop ambient or sub-ambient atmosphere.

McMillin, Summer D.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Full power level development of the Space Shuttle main engine

Development of the Space Shuttle main engine for nominal operation at full power level (109 percent rated power) is continuing in parallel with the successful flight testing of the Space Transportation System. Verification of changes made to the rated power level configuration currently being flown on the Orbiter Columbia is in progress and the certification testing of the full power level configuration has begun. The certification test plan includes the accumulation of 10,000 seconds on each of two engines by early 1983. Certification testing includes the simulation of nominal mission duty cycles as well as the two abort thrust profiles: abort to orbit and return to launch site. Several of the certification tests are conducted at 111 percent power to demonstrate additional safety margins. In addition to the flight test and development program results, future plans for life demonstration and engine uprating will be discussed.

Johnson, J. R.↗

NASA NTRS1972

Application of polyimide actuator rod seals

Development of polyimide two-stage hydraulic actuator rod seals for application in high-performance aircraft was accomplished. The significant portion of the effort was concentrated on optimization of the chevron and K-section second-stage seal geometries to satisfy the requirements for operation at 450 K (350 F) with dynamic pressure loads varying between 200 psig steady-state and 1500 psig impulse cycling. Particular significance was placed on reducing seal gland dimension by efficiently utilizing the fatigue allowables of polyimide materials. Other objectives included investigation of pressure balancing techniques for first-stage polyimide rod seals for 4000 psig 450 K(350 F) environment and fabrication of a modular retainer for the two-stage combination. Seals were fabricated in 0.0254 m (1.0in.) and 0.0635 m (2.5in.) sizes and tested for structural integrity, frictional resistance, and endurance life. Test results showed that carefully designed second stages using polyimides could be made to satisfy the dynamic return pressure requirements of applications in high-performance aircraft. High wear under full system pressure indicated that further research is necessary to obtain an acceptable first-stage design. The modular retainer was successfully tested and showed potential for new actuator applications.

Watermann, A. W.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Testing and Results of Vacuum Swing Adsorption Units for Spacesuit Carbon Dioxide and Humidity Control

A principal concern for extravehicular activity (EVA) space suits is the capability to control carbon dioxide (CO2) and humidity (H2O) for the crewmember. The release of CO2 in a confined or unventilated area is dangerous for human health and leads to asphyxiation; therefore, CO2 and H2O become leading factors in the design and development of the spacesuit. An amine-based CO2 and H2O vapor sorbent for use in pressure-swing re-generable beds has been developed by Hamilton Sundstrand. The application of solid-amine materials with vacuum swing adsorption technology has shown the capacity to concurrently manage CO2 and H2O levels through a fully regenerative cycle eliminating mission constraints imposed with non-regenerative technologies. Two prototype solid amine-based systems, known as rapid cycle amine (RCA), were designed to continuously remove CO2 and H2O vapor from a flowing ventilation stream through the use of a two-bed amine based, vacuum-swing adsorption system. The Engineering and Science Contract Group (ESCG) RCA is the first RCA unit implementing radial flow paths, whereas the Hamilton Sundstrand RCA was designed with linear flow paths. Testing was performed in a sea-level pressure environment and a reduced-pressure environment with simulated human metabolic loads in a closed-loop configuration. This paper presents the experimental results of laboratory testing for a full-size and a sub-scale test article. The testing described here characterized and evaluated the performance of each RCA unit at the required Portable Life Support Subsystem (PLSS) operating conditions. The test points simulated a range of crewmember metabolic rates. The experimental results demonstrate the ability of each RCA unit to sufficiently remove CO2 and H2O from a closed loop ambient or subambient atmosphere.

McMillin, Summer↗

NASA NTRS2014

Misconceptions of Electric Propulsion Aircraft and Their Emergent Aviation Markets

Over the past several years there have been aircraft conceptual design and system studies that have reached conflicting conclusions relating to the feasibility of full and hybrid electric aircraft. Some studies and propulsion discipline experts have claimed that battery technologies will need to improve by 10 to 20 times before electric aircraft can effectively compete with reciprocating or turbine engines. However, such studies have approached comparative assessments without understanding the compelling differences that electric propulsion offers, how these technologies will fundamentally alter the way propulsion integration is approached, or how these new technologies can not only compete but far exceed existing propulsion solutions in many ways at battery specific energy densities of only 400 watt hours per kilogram. Electric propulsion characteristics offer the opportunity to achieve 4 to 8 time improvements in energy costs with dramatically lower total operating costs, while dramatically improving efficiency, community noise, propulsion system reliability and safety through redundancy, as well as life cycle Green House Gas emissions. Integration of electric propulsion will involve far greater degrees of distribution than existing propulsion solutions due to their compact and scale-free nature to achieve multi-disciplinary coupling and synergistic integration with the aerodynamics, highlift system, acoustics, vehicle control, balance, and aeroelasticity. Appropriate metrics of comparison and differences in analysis/design tools are discussed while comparing electric propulsion to other disruptive technologies. For several initial applications, battery energy density is already sufficient for competitive products, and for many additional markets energy densities will likely be adequate within the next 7 years for vibrant introduction. Market evolution and early adopter markets are discussed, along with the investment areas that will fill technology gaps and create opportunities for the effective, near-term electric aircraft products. Without understanding both the context of how electric propulsion will integrate into the vehicle system, and evolve into the market place it is likely that electric propulsion will continue to be misunderstood.

Moore, Mark D.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Ammonia-Removal Efficiency By Full-Scale Carbon-Based Trace-Contaminant Sorbent Monoliths Integrated With the Rapid-Cycle Amine (RCA) Swing Bed

Results are presented on full-scale performance testing of vacuum-regenerable, carbon based sorbent monoliths for trace-contaminant (TC) removal integrated with the Rapid-Cycle Amine (RCA) swing bed for use in the Portable Life Support System (PLSS) during Extravehicular Activities (EVAs). The current state-of-art in TC-control technology involves the use of a packed bed of acid-impregnated granular charcoal, which is difficult to regenerate. The carbon-based sorbent under development in this project can be regenerated by exposure to vacuum at room temperature. Data on cyclic sorption-desorption of ammonia, which is a major TC of concern, were collected in a simulated PLSS ventilation loop which involved the RCA placed upstream of the Trace Contaminant Control System (TCCS). Results of testing involving pressure-swing operation of the integrated TCCS/RCA system indicate ammonia-removal efficiency exceeding 80% throughout multiple sorption-desorption cycles. This paper presents an overview of the TCCS research, the favorable results obtained, and provides insight into future work needed to further the technology development.

Marek A Wójtowicz↗

NASA NTRS2011

Spacesuit Portable Life Support System Breadboard (PLSS 1.0) Development and Test Results

A multi-year effort has been carried out at NASA-JSC to develop an advanced Extravehicular Activity (EVA) PLSS design intended to further the current state of the art by increasing operational flexibility, reducing consumables, and increasing robustness. Previous efforts have focused on modeling and analyzing the advanced PLSS architecture, as well as developing key enabling technologies. Like the current International Space Station (ISS) Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) PLSS, the advanced PLSS comprises of three subsystems required to sustain the crew during EVA including the Thermal, Ventilation, and Oxygen Subsystems. This multi-year effort has culminated in the construction and operation of PLSS 1.0, a test rig that simulates full functionality of the advanced PLSS design. PLSS 1.0 integrates commercial off the shelf hardware with prototype technology development components, including the primary and secondary oxygen regulators, ventilation loop fan, Rapid Cycle Amine (RCA) swingbed, and Spacesuit Water Membrane Evaporator (SWME). Testing accumulated 239 hours over 45 days, while executing 172 test points. Specific PLSS 1.0 test objectives assessed during this testing include: confirming key individual components perform in a system level test as they have performed during component level testing; identifying unexpected system-level interactions; operating PLSS 1.0 in nominal steady-state EVA modes to baseline subsystem performance with respect to metabolic rate, ventilation loop pressure and flow rate, and environmental conditions; simulating nominal transient EVA operational scenarios; simulating contingency EVA operational scenarios; and further evaluating individual technology development components. Successful testing of the PLSS 1.0 provided a large database of test results that characterize system level and component performance. With the exception of several minor anomalies, the PLSS 1.0 test rig performed as expected; furthermore, many system responses trended in accordance with pre-test predictions.

Vogel, Matt R.↗