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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Overview of Crew Operations for Transit to Mars

Crewed Mars missions are estimated to be 700-1,200 days in length which is two to three times longer than any continuous human spaceflight mission to date. When architecting a Mars mission there are numerous resources that must be considered, evaluated, and planned for, including—but not limited to—mass, cost, performance, and risk. Crew time is a limited resource that will need to be appropriately allocated during future Mars missions. NASA’s “Moon to Mars Objectives” specifically recognizes as Recurring Tenets the need to return crews safely to Earth while mitigating adverse impacts to crew health and maximizing crew time available for science and engineering activities within planned mission durations. Crew operations and the crew time allocation for a Mars missions will likely be different than current operational planning aboard the ISS due to communication delays, crew health and performance needs, transportation system needs, potential vehicle dormancy, and mass ejection. Crew will need to operate much more Earth independently and potentially be responsible for more operations since traditional Earth ground support will be delayed. Incidents requiring immediate crew action will therefore either be the responsibility of the crew or an automated feature of the transit vehicle. This paper discusses the operational challenges of a Mars transit mission and the associated activities that will need to take place during each operational phase of transit to and from Mars.

Crew Time↗

NASA NTRS2015

Solar Electric Propulsion Technology Development for Electric Propulsion

NASA is developing technologies to prepare for human exploration missions to Mars. Solar electric propulsion (SEP) systems are expected to enable a new cost effective means to deliver cargo to the Mars surface. Nearer term missions to Mars moons or near-Earth asteroids can be used to both develop and demonstrate the needed technology for these future Mars missions while demonstrating new capabilities in their own right. This presentation discusses recent technology development accomplishments for high power, high voltage solar arrays and power management that enable a new class of SEP missions.

solar electric propulsion↗

NASA NTRS1968

The modification of a Mariner Mars spacecraft power system for a Venus mission and adaption of these techniques for future missions.

Mariner Mars spacecraft power system modification for Venus mission and adaption of these techniques for future missions

Krug, A. B.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Human-Centered Automation: The View from Earth Versus the View from Mars

This panel addresses the topic of human-centered automation in, however, a very different context-manned missions to deep space in which predominantly autonomous systems must control the crew's life-support systems most of the time. The Mars spacecraft and its inhabitants are totally dependent on the proper operation of thousands of control loops and pieces of equipment to maintain the delicate, unbuffered homeostasis of their remote existence. Mission success hangs on a thread that depends on a successful partnership, or symbiosis. between crew and machines, which exceeds anything ever required of ground systems. The need for a new approach to human-centered automation is not a "frill" in future Mars mission, but rather a sine qua non of survival. Thus the issue is design: Can we design systems intended to operate in a predominantly autonomous mode. without a human backup, that are sufficiently safe such that human travel into deep space is possible?

Massimino, Michael J.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Landing Site Reconnaissance Capability

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) entered into orbit about Mars on March 10, 2006. After a series of aerobraking and propulsive maneuvers, the spacecraft has been in its sun-synchronous primary science orbit since September 2006 performing both scientific and Mars programmatic support roles. In addition to MRO’s scientific investigations of Mars, NASA has tasked MRO to provide reconnaissance of potential landing sites for ongoing and future Mars missions. This paper covers the mission design and analysis process to characterize MRO’s landing site coverage capability for all global locations, with special focus on potential sites for future missions: Gale Crater, Mawrth Vallis, and Noachis Human Exploration Zone.

Johnston, M. Daniel↗

NASA NTRS2001

Advanced Power and Propulsion: Insuring Human Survival and Productivity in Deep Space Missions

Dr. Chang-Diaz gave an intriguing presentation of his research in advanced rocket propulsion and its relevance for planning and executing crewed deep space explorations. Though not necessarily exclusively Martian, his thrust looks critically at future Mars missions. Initially Dr. Chang-Diaz showed the time constraints of Mars missions due to orbital mechanics and our present chemically powered rocket technology. Since essentially all the energy required to place current generation spacecraft into a Martian trajectory must be expended in the early minutes of a flight, most of such a mission is spent in free-fall drift, captive to the gravitational forces among Earth, the Sun, and Mars. The simple physics of such chemically powered missions requires nearly a year in transit for each direction of a Mars mission. And the optimal orientations of Earth and Mars for rendezvous require further time on or around Mars to await return. These extensions of mission duration place any crew under a three-fold jeopardy: (1) physiological deconditioning (which in some aspects is still unknown and unpreventable), (2) psychological stress, and (3) ionizing radiation. This latter risk is due to exposure of crew members for extended time to the highly unpredictable and potentially lethal radiations of open space. Any gains in shortening mission duration would reap equivalent or greater benefits for these crew concerns. Dr. Chang-Diaz has applied his training and expertise (Ph.D. from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in applied plasma physics) toward development of continuous rocket propulsion which would offer great time advantages in travel, and also more launch options than are now available. He clearly explained the enormous gains from a relatively low thrust accelerative force applied essentially continuously versus the high, but short-lived propulsion of present chemical rockets. In fact, such spacecraft could be powered throughout the mission, accelerating to approximately the midpoint and decelerating during the latter half. This would not only provide some level of gravity (acceleration) throughout the mission but also allow very high velocities to be achieved, thus saving many months of travel time. In proposing the design of such a spacecraft propulsion system, Dr. Chang-Diaz was quick to acknowledge the need for a large power source, which undoubtedly must be nuclear fueled at the solar distances involved. He calls his system the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR). The other major ingredient is a mass (deuterium, which could also function as a radiation shield for crews) for energizing into the ultra hot, high velocity exhaust plasma. He foresees models now functional in the laboratory soon to be tested in space. In fact, some of these concepts have already been tried there. His optimism and determination would have operational rockets in the next decades.

Chang-Diaz, Franklin R.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Real Time Radiation Exposure And Health Risks

Radiation from solar particle events (SPEs) poses a serious threat to future manned missions outside of low Earth orbit (LEO). Accurate characterization of the radiation environment in the inner heliosphere and timely monitoring the health risks to crew are essential steps to ensure the safety of future Mars missions. In this project we plan to develop an approach that can use the particle data from multiple satellites and perform near real-time simulations of radiation exposure and health risks for various exposure scenarios. Time-course profiles of dose rates will be calculated with HZETRN and PDOSE from the energy spectrum and compositions of the particles archived from satellites, and will be validated from recent radiation exposure measurements in space. Real-time estimation of radiation risks will be investigated using ARRBOD. This cross discipline integrated approach can improve risk mitigation by providing critical information for risk assessment and medical guidance to crew during SPEs.

Hu, Shaowen↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

MEDLI2: MISP Inferred Aerothermal Environment and Flow Transition Assessment

The Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation 2 (MEDLI2) sensor suite on the Mars2020 mission contained multiple sensors on the aeroshell to measure the aerothermal environment during entry into the Martian atmosphere. These sensors performed superbly and successfully returned forebody and aftbody heating measurements. Analysis of MEDLI2 data indicated flow transitioning from a laminar to turbulent state on the heatshield. No evidence of flow transition was observed on the backshell. Two methods were used to estimate flow transition times on the heatshield: (1) temperature gradient of near-surface thermocouple data and (2) heat flux gradient from an inverse reconstruction approach using thermocouple data and material response modeling. Both methods produced similar transition times with an estimated accuracy of ±1 s. To assess various transition criteria, transition parameters were evaluated at each sensor location using flow field solutions from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The idea was to use conservative values inferred from MEDLI2 data as transition criteria for other Mars missions. To test this hypothesis, MEDLI data from the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission was used to compare predicted vs. actual flow transition times. The comparisons suggest smooth wall transition criteria are not well-suited in modeling the rapid progression of a turbulent transition front. Transition criteria containing a roughness element parameter agreed better with the flight data. In summary, critical transition values derived from MEDLI2 data may be used as a starting point in constructing a flow transition model for future Mars missions.

Chun Y Tang↗

NASA NTRS2003

An evolving Mars telecommunications network to enable exploration and increase science data return

The coming decade of Mars exploration involves a variety of unique telecommunications challenges. Increasing spatial and spectral resolution of in situ science instruments drive the need for increased bandwidth. At the same time, many innovative and low-cost in situ mission concepts are enabled by energy-efficient relay communications. In response to these needs, the Mars Exploration Program has established a plan for an evolving orbital infrastructure that can provide enhancing and enabling telecommunications services to future Mars missions. We will present the evolving capabilities of this network over the coming decade in terms of specific quantitative metrics such as data volume per sol and required lander energy per Gb of returned data for representative classes of Mars exploration spacecraft.

Mars Telecommunication↗

NASA NTRS2012

Entry, Descent, and Landing for Human Mars Missions

One of the most challenging aspects of a human mission to Mars is landing safely on the Martian surface. Mars has such low atmospheric density that decelerating large masses (tens of metric tons) requires methods that have not yet been demonstrated, and are not yet planned in future Mars missions. To identify the most promising options for Mars entry, descent, and landing, and to plan development of the needed technologies, NASA's Human Architecture Team (HAT) has refined candidate methods for emplacing needed elements of the human Mars exploration architecture (such as ascent vehicles and habitats) on the Mars surface. This paper explains the detailed, optimized simulations that have been developed to define the mass needed at Mars arrival to accomplish the entry, descent, and landing functions. Based on previous work, technology options for hypersonic deceleration include rigid, mid-L/D (lift-to-drag ratio) aeroshells, and inflatable aerodynamic decelerators (IADs). The hypersonic IADs, or HIADs, are about 20% less massive than the rigid vehicles, but both have their technology development challenges. For the supersonic regime, supersonic retropropulsion (SRP) is an attractive option, since a propulsive stage must be carried for terminal descent and can be ignited at higher speeds. The use of SRP eliminates the need for an additional deceleration system, but SRP is at a low Technology Readiness Level (TRL) in that the interacting plumes are not well-characterized, and their effect on vehicle stability has not been studied, to date. These architecture-level assessments have been used to define the key performance parameters and a technology development strategy for achieving the challenging mission of landing large payloads on Mars.

Munk, Michelle M.↗

NASA NTRS2015

SOAREX-8 Suborbital Experiments 2015 - A New Paradigm for Small Spacecraft Communication

In 2015 NASA plans to launch a payload to 280 Km altitude on a sounding rocket from the Wallops Flight Facility. This payload will contain several novel technologies that work together to demonstrate methodologies for space sample return missions and for nanosatellite communications in general. The payload will deploy and test an Exo-Brake, which slows the payload aerodynamically, providing eventual de-orbit and recovery of future ISS samples through a Small Payload Quick Return project. In addition, this flight addresses future Mars mission entry technology, space-to-space communications using the Iridium Short Messaging Service (SMS), GPS tracking, and wireless sensors using the ZigBee protocol. SOAREX-8 is being assembled and tested at Ames Research Center (ARC) and the NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) is funding sensor and communications work. Open source Arduino technology and software are used for system control. The ZigBee modules used are XBee units that connect analog sensors for temperature, air pressure and acceleration measurement wirelessly to the payload telemetry system. Our team is developing methods for power distribution and module mounting, along with software for sensor integration, data assembly and downlink. We have demonstrated relaying telemetry to the ground using the Iridium satellite constellation on a previous flight, but the upcoming flight will be the first time we integrate useful flight test data from a ZigBee wireless sensor network. Wireless sensor data will measure the aerodynamic efficacy of the Exo-Brake permitting further on orbit flight tests of improved designs. The Exo-Brake is 5 sq m in area and will be stored in a container and deployed during ascent once the payload is jettisoned from the launch vehicle. We intend to further refine the hardware and continue testing on balloon launches, future sounding rocket flights and on nanosatellite missions. The use of standards-based and open source hardware/software has allowed for this project to be completed with a very modest budget and a challenging schedule. There is a wealth of hardware and software available for both the Arduino platform and the XBee, all low-cost or open-source. Along with the Exo-Brake hardware and deployment discussion, this paper will describe in detail the system architecture emphasizing the successful use of open source hardware and software to minimize effort and cost. Testing procedures, radio frequency interference (RFI) mitigation, success criteria and expected results will also be discussed. The use of Iridium short messaging capability for space-to-space links, standards-based wireless sensor networks, and other innovative communications technology are also presented.

aerobrake↗

NASA NTRS2018

NASA's Space Launch System and Deep Space Opportunities for Smallsats

Overview of the agency’s plans for deep space exploration: NASA has a phased approach to successful human exploration of deep space; We began LEO (Low Earth Orbit), where we’ve lived aboard the ISS continuously for more than 17 years; What have we learned in those years that will help us put boots on the moon with eyes toward Mars? And also help us on Earth? - Advances in materials research - 3D printing in space - Engineered life support systems for sustained stays in space - Better understanding of the effects of microgravity on the human body - We deploy CubeSats from the ISS (International Space Station) - We’ve cooperate with international partners - We’ve opened transportation to LEO to commercial vehicles; Allowing commercial companies to take over LEO frees NASA to explore deep space - next step is back to the Moon; NASA will establish a lunar Gateway near the moon (near rectilinear halo orbit);The Gateway will be crew tended (30-90 day missions); Gateway will communicate with Earth and lunar surface; Will open new opportunities for robotic exploration of the moon, especially far side of the moon and poles; Prospecting for volatiles will be high on the list of priorities; SLS (Space Launch System)/Orion will participate in gateway assembly and operation; Will serve as a testbed for new technologies and inform future Mars missions; After learning how to live and work in deep space like we did in LEO, NASA will move on Mars missions; SLS’s capability to accommodate primary, co-manifested and secondary payloads (when available) is a key component in making this vision a reality.

Bookout, Paul S.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA’s Artemis Human Landing Systems: Enabling Lunar Exploration

On March 26, 2019, in keeping with Space Policy Directive-1, NASA was charged with landing the first woman and the next man on the South Pole of the Moon by 2024, followed by a sustained presence on and around the Moon by 2028. NASA’s Human Landing System (HLS) Program is responsible for the transportation in deep space to carry humans to and from the surface of the Moon, to be designed and developed by American companies for NASA’s Artemis lunar exploration program. On April 30, 2020, NASA announced the awardees for NASA’s Human Landing System contracts under Appendix H of the NextSTEP-2 Broad Agency Announcement: A Blue Origin-led team including Lockheed Martin, Northrup Grumman, and Draper; Dynetics (a Leidos company); and SpaceX. The companies began work in a multi-month base period during which NASA teams will work with the companies to streamline requirements, to establish standards and methods, to review required products and to share the NASA’s expertise in human spaceflight systems development. Following the base period, which ends in the spring of 2021, NASA will determine which company or companies will develop Artemis human landing systems for the initial demonstration missions, including the goal of landing on the Moon in 2024.This paper examines how the Human Landing System program is at the center of NASA’s Artemis lunar exploration program, designed to yield groundbreaking science, develop and utilize lunar surface resources and leverage the Moon as a proving ground for future Mars missions. While achieving the 2024 goal requires a focus on speed and the use of mature technologies, planning toward sustained operations to and from the lunar surface requires a focus on reliability and reusability.

Lisa Watson-Morgan↗

NASA NTRS2005

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter mission operations: architecture and approach

MRO↗

NASA NTRS2006

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Mission Operations: Architecture and Approach

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) was launched on August 12, 2005 by an Atlas V launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. MRO will carry a rich set of science instruments to Mars and provide global, regional survey, and targeted observations. In addition, a set of engineering instruments providing optical navigation, Ka band telecommunication and UHF relay services to future Mars missions are part of the MRO payload. During the mission, the MRO operations teams are presented with two major challenges - unprecedented high data rate and data volumes, and complex science planning and resource sharing. MRO has the capability to communicate with earth at a maximum of six Megabits per second (> 50 times any previous Mars missions). With the current Deep Space Network (DSN) contact schedule of 19 eight-hour tracks per week, the baseline mission plan is for MRO to return 34 Terabits of raw science data during the two year primary science phase. Each of the science instruments has its unique requirements for global mapping, regional survey, and targeted observations. Some instruments prefer nadir-only observations, while others require off-nadir observations (especially for stereo viewing). The requirements from these Mars viewing instruments presented a significant challenge for the operations team to design the complex science planning and resource sharing/allocation process. This paper describes what MRO project is implementing to solve these challenges.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)↗

NASA NTRS2005

Approach and Instrument Placement Validation

The Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) from the 2003 flight mission represents the state of the art technology for target approach and instrument placement on Mars. It currently takes 3 sols (Martian days) for the rover to place an instrument on a designated rock target that is about 10 to 20 m away. The objective of this project is to provide an experimentally validated single-sol instrument placement capability to future Mars missions. After completing numerous test runs on the Rocky8 rover under various test conditions, it has been observed that lighting conditions, shadow effects, target features and the initial target distance have an effect on the performance and reliability of the tracking software. Additional software validation testing will be conducted in the months to come.

Ator, Danielle↗

NASA NTRS2000

Mars Mobile Lander Systems for 2005 and 2007 Launch Opportunities

A series of Mars missions are proposed for the August 2005 launch opportunity on a medium class Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) with a injected mass capability of 2600 to 2750 kg. Known as the Ranger class, the primary objective of these Mars mission concepts are: (1) Deliver a mobile platform to Mars surface with large payload capability of 150 to 450 kg (depending on launch opportunity of 2005 or 2007); (2) Develop a robust, safe, and reliable workhorse entry, descent, and landing (EDL) capability for landed mass exceeding 750 kg; (3) Provide feed forward capability for the 2007 opportunity and beyond; and (4) Provide an option for a long life telecom relay orbiter. A number of future Mars mission concepts desire landers with large payload capability. Among these concepts are Mars sample return (MSR) which requires 300 to 450 kg landed payload capability to accommodate sampling, sample transfer equipment and a Mars ascent vehicle (MAV). In addition to MSR, large in situ payloads of 150 kg provide a significant step up from the Mars Pathfinder (MPF) and Mars Polar Lander (MPL) class payloads of 20 to 30 kg. This capability enables numerous and physically large science instruments as well as human exploration development payloads. The payload may consist of drills, scoops, rock corers, imagers, spectrometers, and in situ propellant production experiment, and dust and environmental monitoring.

Sabahi, D.↗

NASA NTRS2020

Pterodactyl: Non-Propulsive Control System Designs for Future Planetary Missions

Advances in deployable entry vehicle (DEV) technology, entry guidance, woven thermal protection systems, and affordable launch services make it possible to conceive of entry vehicles that optimize maneuverability, usable payload mass and volume, and operational costs. NASA's Space Technology Mission Directorate is currently funding the authors on a project, Pterodactyl, that is using on-the-fly trajectory design and integrated software and hardware development to investigate non-propulsive entry control systems for precision targeting of mechanical DEVs. The authors recently reported developments of these control systems for an asymmetric DEV to track bank commands for a lunar return entry. For this presentation, the authors will highlight key findings from their studies and propose rapid investigations of applications to future Mars missions such as sample return and asset delivery. Pterodactyl entry vehicle designs are suited to handle sensitive payloads and poised to achieve greater payload mass and volume compared to heritage entry vehicles given a particular launch vehicle. Furthermore, these designs could be adapted to launch on less costly launch vehicles as secondary payloads and could enable missions with high-frequency deployment requirements.

Alunni, Antonella↗