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DOE OSTI2025

Homoleptic An(IV) Dimethyl Sulfoxide Complexes of Th–Pu Enable Insight into Solution Speciation and Redox

A family of 8- and 9- coordinate homoleptic dimethyl sulfoxide An(IV) complexes is used to evaluate the solvation properties of tetravalent actinide ions in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) vs aqueous media. These compounds are prepared from aqueous mixtures of DMSO and yield crystalline solids, whose solid-state electronic absorption spectra are compared to solution phase spectra, providing insight into the solution speciation. The thermodynamics of the equilibria between the 8- and 9-coordinate compounds were determined experimentally and computationally, showing a trend that correlates with ionic radius. Cyclic voltammetry data for the +IV/+III couples of Np and Pu in the DMSO electrolyte indicate that the +IV ions are significantly stabilized compared to aqueous media due to the more donating nature of DMSO compared to water. As a result, computational studies of these systems indicate that further reactivity may take place upon reduction to the +III oxidation state.

Actinides↗

DOE OSTI2025

X-ray Diffraction Studies of Single-Crystal Materials for Broad Battery Applications

Single-crystal materials have attracted growing interest in battery research due to their well-defined crystallographic orientation, absence of grain boundaries, and enhanced mechanical and electrochemical stability. This Review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the synthesis, structural evolution, and performance optimization of single-crystal electrodes and solid electrolytes. Particular focus is placed on the application of advanced X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques, including operando synchrotron diffraction, reciprocal space mapping, and Bragg coherent diffraction imaging, which have enabled in-depth investigations of lattice strain, cation disorder, phase transitions, and defect formation. Representative case studies across Ni-rich layered oxides, spinel-type cathodes, and garnet-based electrolytes are examined to highlight the structural features unique to single crystals. Additionally, the synergistic integration of XRD with machine learning, tomography, and spectroscopy is discussed as a powerful direction for real-time analysis and predictive modeling. Furthermore, these insights provide critical guidance for the rational design of high-performance single-crystal materials in lithium, sodium, and solid-state battery systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Enhancing cathode composites with conductive alignment synergy for solid-state batteries

Enhancing transport and chemomechanical properties in cathode composites is crucial for the performance of solid-state batteries. Our study introduces the filler-aligned structured thick (FAST) electrode, which notably improves mechanical strength and ionic/electronic conductivity in solid composite cathodes. The FAST electrode incorporates vertically aligned nanoconducting carbon nanotubes within an ion-conducting polymer electrolyte, creating a low-tortuosity electron/ion transport path while strengthening the electrode’s structure. This design not only mitigates recrystallization of the polymer electrolyte but also establishes a densified local electric field distribution and accelerates the migration of lithium ions. The FAST electrode showcases outstanding electrochemical performance with lithium iron phosphate as the active material, achieving a high capacity of 148.2 milliampere hours per gram at 0.2 C over 100 cycles with substantial material loading (49.3 milligrams per square centimeter). This innovative electrode design marks a remarkable stride in addressing the challenges of solid-state lithium metal batteries.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗

DOE OSTI2026

From Powder to Power: Tailored Pre-Milling Strategy that Optimizes Microstructure for Efficient Hydrogen Evolution

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) plays a critical role in enabling large-scale electrolytic hydrogen production and advancing future technologies and fuel production. Among non-precious metals, NiMo-based catalysts are particularly attractive due to their capability to promote both water dissociation and hydrogen adsorption in alkaline media. However, conventional NiMo catalysts often suffer from incomplete alloying, particle aggregation, weak metal–support interactions, and surface oxidation, which significantly limit active site utilization, electronic conductivity, and long-term stability. Herein, we report a scalable, solid-state, two-step ball milling strategy for constructing an efficient NiMo/C catalyst for the HER. Pre-milling the metal precursors prior to carbon incorporation promotes efficient solid-state activation, leading to the formation of uniformly alloyed, ultrafine, and defect-rich Ni–Mo nanoparticles with robust metal–carbon interfacial anchoring. Benefiting from this integrated structural design, the optimized NiMo/C catalyst exhibits low overpotentials and Tafel slopes, reduced charge-transfer resistance, and excellent durability under alkaline conditions. Comprehensive structural and surface analysis reveal that the enhanced HER performance can be attributed to the synergistic interplay of homogeneous Ni–Mo alloying, uniform nanoparticle dispersion on a defect-rich carbon scaffold, enhanced accessibility of catalytically active sites, and optimized electronic coupling that stabilizes the catalyst surface. This work highlights the two-step solid-state ball milling strategy as a simple, robust, and scalable route for the preparation of effective and durable non-precious metal HER electrocatalysts, offering practical insights toward large-scale and inexpensive hydrogen production.

Yang, Xiaoxuan [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORN↗

DOE OSTI2026

All-organic self-separating three-dimensionally nanoarchitected electrochemical energy storage devices

This work realizes a three-dimensionally (3D) nanoarchitected, all organic, "self-separating" lithium-ion electrochemical energy storage (EES) device that is cycled as a solid-state full cell. The device is enabled by a monolithic carbon anode with a co-continuous pore network, derived from the structure direction of resols by an ultra-large molar mass block copolymer (BCP), poly(styrene-block-2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (SA). Electropolymerization of a single-phase conductive and redox-active material, poly((2,3-dihydrothieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-yl)methyl 9,10-dioxo-9,10-dihydroanthracene-2-carboxylate) (PAQEDOT), into the pore space provides the cathode of the cell. The device is electronically contacted to the relevant electrode network enabled by the co-continuous nature of each electrode. Electrochemical processing via cycling against external lithium in an electrolyte generates a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) as a separator and lithiates the cell electrodes, after which the EES device is cycled in the solid state. While the full cell does not demonstrate high cyclability, the best full cell demonstrates a discharge capacity of 267 milliamp hours per gram (mAh/g). This work marks, to the best of knowledge of the authors, the first example of an all-organic materials derived 3D nanoarchitected EES device, as well as the first design of "self-separating" cell fabrication. Furthermore, generalization of the design to another co-continuous carbon form factor is demonstrated.

FOS: Physical sciences↗

DOE OSTI2026

From Serendipity to Exploration: Synthesis and Properties of PtSiSb

PtSiSb is a compound with covalent Si–Sb bonds, which are relatively rare instances in solid-state materials. The original report on PtSiSb indicates synthetic challenges for the isolation of single-phase samples, as well as potential discrepancies in the predicted electronic structure and experimental transport properties. In this work, we considered PtSiSb as a case study with the objective of demonstrating the importance of synthesis as a bridge between theoretical predictions and experimental properties. Using guidance from in situ powder X-ray diffraction, the synthesis of single-phase polycrystalline samples was developed, allowing further experimental characterization of transport and catalytic properties. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity demonstrated anomalous behavior, indicating an unconventional phonon scattering mechanism in PtSiSb. Charge transport measurements indicated semimetallic behavior. Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) tests in acidic electrolyte revealed that the PtSiSb cathode needs an overpotential η 10 = 120 mV to achieve a current density j = −10 mA/cm 2 . This is lower activity than elemental Pt but comparable to known and active transition-metal phosphide HER catalysts, such as CoP, with η 10 = 93 mV when measured at identical conditions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Electron Inversion and Tunneling at Silicon Thermal Oxide Interfaces for Solar-Driven Molecular Catalysis to Syngas

Semiconductor photoelectrodes are regularly coupled to solid-state heterogeneous catalysts to perform solar-driven reduction of CO 2 . Less frequently, molecular catalysts are employed to better control the reactivity toward desired products, yet the development of robust semiconductor/molecule interfaces has proven challenging. Here, we demonstrate that a 2–3 nm thermal oxide layer on Si exhibits stability in aqueous solution, high photovoltage, and a photocurrent density of ∼10 mA/cm 2 for the solar-driven photoelectrochemical reduction of a homogeneous molecular catalyst, producing syngas with an ∼2:1 H 2 to CO ratio. Because of a low defect density, the oxide interface forms an electron inversion layer with metal-like electron density at cathodic potentials. This inversion layer facilitates electron transfer to redox-active molecules via tunneling even if the molecule’s reduction potential is beyond the semiconductor’s conduction band edge. Using an electrolyte solution composed of a homogeneous cobalt bis(terpyridine) catalyst in a water/organic solvent mixture, stable photoelectrochemistry was observed under 1-sun illumination, exhibiting an ∼30% Faradaic efficiency for CO that was similar to a glassy carbon electrode under comparable conditions. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that an ultrathin thermal oxide interface is a robust platform for development of aqueous-stable, molecule-driven photoelectrocatalysis.

Catalysts↗

DOE OSTI2025

Come for predictions, stay for complexity: synthesis and experimental probing of ionic conductivity in Li 9 B 19 S 33

Lithium thioborates, despite their potential cost-effectiveness and low density, have received considerably less attention as solid electrolytes compared to their thiophosphate counterparts. A primary obstacle to their widespread investigation has been the inherent challenge in synthesizing single-phase materials. Computational studies have predicted several lithium thioborate phases exhibiting high ionic conductivity, with Li 9 B 19 S 33 notably predicted to reach 80 mS cm −1 . However, experimental validation of these theoretical predictions remains absent. This work addresses this gap by detailing a successful synthesis of the previously elusive Li 9 B 19 S 33 phase, facilitated by in situ temperature dependent powder X-ray diffraction. Our findings reveal the peritectic nature of phase formation, necessitating an excess of boron sulfide in the reaction mixture. We further present a comprehensive structural characterization of Li 9 B 19 S 33 utilizing spectroscopic techniques like NMR, FT-IR, and diffuse reflectance and report on its ionic conductivity. Solid-state 6 Li NMR line narrowing experiments revealed an ion mobility activation energy of 0.26 eV whereas activation energies derived from impedance spectroscopy measurements were significantly higher, resulting in lower than theoretically predicted ionic conductivity.

Oppong, Richeal A. [Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA (Un↗

DOE OSTI2025

Nano-Engineered Interfaces in Dual-Layer Electrodes for Protonic Ceramic Cells with Enhanced Stability and Kinetics

Enhancing interfacial stability and charge transfer in protonic ceramic cells (PCCs) remains a critical challenge, as structural degradation and interfacial resistance often compromise durability and efficiency. Here, we report a nanoengineered dual-layer oxygen electrode architecture designed to address these limitations by introducing a fine-grained nanoparticle interfacial contact layer beneath a porous catalytic backbone. The nanoscale powders, through enhanced sintering activity, densify into a robust interfacial layer that promotes strong chemical bonding, uniform adhesion, and continuous ionic/electronic pathways with the BCZYYb electrolyte. This hierarchical architecture mitigates delamination, redistributes mechanical stress, and establishes efficient charge and mass transport channels without relying on corrosive surface treatments. Electrochemical evaluation demonstrates that the dual-layer design markedly reduces interfacial polarization resistance and accelerates electrode kinetics. Compared to the single-layer counterpart, the architecture achieves a peel strength of 44.53 N/cm 2 , a 40% improvement in peak power density (0.96 W cm –2 at 600 °C), and a 130% enhancement in electrolysis current density (4.78 A cm –2 at 1.57 V). Faradaic efficiency remains as high as 88% under high steam concentrations, underscoring minimal charge loss during practical operation. Notably, the electrode retains stability across 450–600 °C and under transient voltage cycling, with impedance spectra confirming suppressed interfacial resistance growth over prolonged use. These results highlight nanoscale interface engineering as a powerful route to enhance both mechanical robustness and electrochemical kinetics in PCCs. The demonstrated scalability and durability of this architecture provide a versatile platform for advancing solid-state electrochemical systems, including reversible fuel cells and high-efficiency hydrogen production technologies.

Faradaic efficiency↗

DOE OSTI2026

Time-Evolved Hetero-Alkali Interphases Enable Long-Life Sulfide-Based Anode-Free Solid-State Batteries

Sulfide-based anode-free solid-state batteries (AFSSBs) offer compelling advantages in terms of energy density and safety, yet their practical implementation is severely hindered by undesirable interfacial reactions between sulfide solid electrolytes (SEs) and freshly plated lithium (Li), as well as non-uniform Li plating/stripping behavior. Herein, an effective interfacial stabilization strategy by incorporating sodium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (NaFSI) additive into the Li5.4PS4.4Cl1.6 (LPSC) is investigated. Unlike conventional Li-based additives that form static passivation layers, NaFSI introduces a transient hetero-alkali chemistry that kinetically governs interphase evolution during fresh Li plating. NaFSI induces a timesequenced interphase evolution: an initial NaF/LiF-rich layer that suppresses early sulfide reduction, followed by a LiF/Li3N-rich layer that optimizes Li⁺ transport during repeated anode-free cycling. This evolved robust and fast ion conducting layer mitigates interfacial impedance growth, enhances Li + transport kinetics, and suppresses localized Li growth and filamentary shorting. As a result, the anode-free full cell with NaFSI modified LPSC as the interlayer exhibits an excellent cycling stability over 500 cycles at 0.2 C with a capacity retention of 77.6%, whereas the cell with bare LPSC suffers from rapid capacity decay after 100 cycles, retaining only 32.1% of its initial capacity. This work establishes dynamic heteroalkali additive chemistry as a general strategy to kinetically program solid-solid interphases, guiding the interface design in anode-free solid-state batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Self-Healing Lithium Dendrites through Spontaneous Passivating Layer Formation for Stable Solid-State Lithium–Metal Batteries

All-solid-state lithium–metal batteries have attracted significant attention, owing to their high energy density and superior safety. However, lithium–metal penetration through the solid electrolyte, leading to short-circuiting, remains a critical failure mode that demands comprehensive mitigation strategies. Most existing strategies are effective only prior to the initiation of lithium-dendrite formation and fail once dendrites begin to propagate through the electrolyte. In this study, we propose a self-healing mechanism in which the penetrated lithium reacts with a self-healing agent to form a passivating layer along the particle boundaries. Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) was incorporated into a Li 6 PS 5 Cl solid electrolyte as the self-healing agent to suppress lithium-dendrite propagation even after dendrite formation initiated under high current densities. The self-healing induced by LiTFSI was verified through comprehensive experimental analyses and was further demonstrated in a full-cell configuration. Moreover, LiTFSI incorporation plays an important role in increasing the critical current density by reducing the overall electronic conductivity of the solid electrolyte and facilitating the formation of a robust LiF-containing solid-electrolyte interphase.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Passivation‐Induced Species Dynamics and Microstructural Evolution in Solid‐State Lithium–Sulfur Cathodes

Solid-state lithium–sulfur (SSLS) batteries offer high theoretical energy density, yet their practical viability is hindered by poor sulfur utilization and limited rechargeability. At the core of this challenge lies the passivating nature of Li 2 S, which restricts ionic and electronic transport, suppresses interfacial activity, and severely impedes the reversibility of electrochemical reactions. In this study, we elucidate the mechanistic origins of these limitations by resolving how charge and discharge species form, grow, and spatially evolve within the cathode microstructure under varied current densities and electrode compositions. By resolving the species distribution at the particle scale and coupling it with Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, we demonstrate how Li 2 S formation induces localized surface passivation that progressively limits electrochemical accessibility within the cathode microstructure. Sulfur utilization is found to be strongly governed by the interplay between sulfur loading, residual porosity, and interfacial architecture. High sulfur contents result in buried, electrochemically isolated domains due to poor solid electrolyte (SE) percolation, while low sulfur contents trigger SE degradation via parasitic reactions. The resulting sulfur-porosity maps delineate the mechanistic boundaries between reversible and transport-limited regimes, offering actionable design guidance for SSLS cathodes with enhanced sulfur utilization.

electrode microstructure↗

DOE OSTI2026

Site-Selective Modification of Lanthanum Oxychloride to Modulate Halide-Ion Conduction

Design principles for solid-state halide-ion conduction remain poorly defined despite the increasing importance of halide ions as charge carriers in a variety of energy storage and electrochemical computing technologies. Here, we employ a siteselective modification strategy in which aliovalent cations are preferentially introduced at the La 3+ crystallographic site of LaOCl in the 2c Wyckoff position, enabling controlled generation of chloride vacancies and modification of lattice dynamics to enhance chloride-ion conductivity. Aliovalent substitution of La 3+ with Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , and Sr 2+ generates charge-compensating Cl vacancies while preserving the matlockite crystal structure. X-ray excited optical luminescence measurements with Dy 3+ as a reporter chromophore evidence vacancy-derived midgap electronic states and an extended energy range of radiation-less Auger electron emission corresponding to substantial modification of electronic structure and local electrostatic potentials. Ca alloying at 8−10 at. % increases the chloride-ion conductivity by three- to 4 orders of magnitude as compared to unalloyed LaOCl, whereas comparable amounts of Sr- and Mg-alloying in LaOCl imbue less pronounced conductivity enhancements. Temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy measurements reveal that Ca- and Sr-alloying substantially soften the La−Cl sublattice and yield a more compliant crystal lattice that can deform to accommodate Cl-ion migration. Structure solutions derived from Rietveld refinements to powder Xray diffraction reveal larger O−La−Cl bond-angle deviations and enhanced out-of-plane cation displacements for Ca- and Sr-alloyed compositions as compared to Mg-alloyed LaOCl. Such local distortions enhance chloride-ion mobility by reshaping and flattening vacancy migration energy landscapes and by modulating lattice dynamics governing anion conduction. We further illustrate that coalloying of Ca with Mg and Sr induces a nonmonotonic conductivity−defect stoichiometry relationship that can be rationalized based on cooperative interactions. Together, these results establish site-selective aliovalent alloying of LaOCl as an effective route to halide-ion solid electrolytes and provide broadly generalizable design principles for site-selective modification to induce vacancy formation and lattice softening to engender facile anion transport

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Recent Progress in Solid‐State Lithium Batteries through Cathode Microstructure Engineering

A high‐performance cathode is necessary to realize the great potentials of solid‐state batteries such as high energy density and long cycle life. It is also needed to validate electrolyte performance, which is lacking. Currently, cathodes for solid‐state batteries are thinner and have lower cathode active material content than their lithium‐ion battery counterpart, resulting from insufficient conductivity and limiting the battery energy density. This review article provides an overview of recent development in cathode microstructures and their impact on battery properties, including compatibility between cathode and electrolyte, cathode architecture design, interface engineering, correlation between material properties, cathode processing approaches, and performance, as well as the advanced characterization methods used to understand the above correlations . Some perspectives on future development are shared including utilizing in situ and operando characterization tools to better understand dynamic evolution of the cathode/electrolyte interface, adapting artificial intelligence and machine learning to design and optimize cathode structures. The article is aimed to promote research interest on cathode development and advance solid‐state battery technologies.

cathode engineering↗

DOE OSTI2024

Li Stripping Behavior of Anode‐Free Solid‐State Batteries Under Intermittent‐Current Discharge Conditions

Anode‐free manufacturing holds promise to enable high energy densities and lower Lithium (Li)‐metal solid‐state batteries (LMSSBs). Nevertheless, in contrast to thick Li foil (>50 µm), the stripping capacity of in situ‐formed Li (10–30 µm) is limited due to diminished creep flow, resulting in reduced accessible capacity. This study explores the correlation between stripping capacity and surface roughness of garnet Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 (LLZO) solid electrolyte. The results reveal that stripping capacity can be enhanced through the surface modification of solid electrolytes. Additionally, this study scrutinizes the stripping behavior of in situ Li under intermittent‐current discharge conditions, which are more relevant to the operational conditions of electric vehicles (EVs). It is demonstrated that, when compared to constant‐current stripping, intermittent‐current stripping effectively suppresses void formation and enhances the stripping capacity of in situ Li by 40%. It is considered that the intermittent current inhibits the accumulation of Li vacancies, thereby delaying the void formation. These findings provide valuable insights into the development of high‐performance anode‐free LMSSBs for EVs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Complex Dynamics in Argyrodite Solid-State Ion Conductors

Argyrodites are a compositionally diverse family of materials that exhibit remarkable ion transport properties. While the average crystal structures of argyrodites have been extensively studied, ion transport in these materials is governed by a confluence of dynamic processes spanning the cation, anion, and polyanionic sublattices. This Perspective synthesizes recent advances in understanding the role of dynamics in structural behavior and ion transport properties. We examine the compositional and structural motifs that govern order−disorder transitions within the argyrodite family and further explore how ion hopping is facilitated by lattice dynamics, from long-range phonons to local rotational dynamics of polyanionic species. Through the lens of dynamics spanning multiple time and length scales, we establish guiding principles that govern transport phenomena and highlight avenues of future study for the argyrodite family of ion conductors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Solid-state prealkylation of electrode architectures to tune solid electrolyte interphase composition

Efficient electrochemical cycling of certain Si anodes is limited by irreversible Li consumption to form and continually reform the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) due to Si expansion/contraction and fracture. Prelithiation can compensate for these losses; however, the starting open circuit potential (VOC) becomes highly reducing and, therefore, the electrolyte reduction chemistry that influences the SEI composition can change. Herein, we compare SEI formation for electrodes prelithiated using Solid State Prealkylation of Electrode Architectures (SPEAR) versus traditional electrochemically lithiated architectures (ECLAR), focusing on SEI compositional changes as a function of stoichiometry (0.28 ≤ x ≤ 1.38 in LixSi). Increasing SPEAR prelithiation decreased the initial VOC of Si anodes vs. Li/Li+ from ∼3 V (Li0.28Si) to < 0.5 V for Li1.38Si, enabling simultaneous competitive reduction of EC, EMC, and LiPF6 at low potentials. Ex situ7Li and 29Si cross-polarization NMR and XPS reveal that SPEAR drives thicker SEI formation with substantially increased P/F contributions and a predominantly inorganic insoluble SEI (71.4% inorganic for Li1.38Si), consistent with accelerated LiPF6-derived POx/LiPFx/LiF formation relative to ECLAR analogs which exhibit carbonate-rich organic SEI compositions. Symmetric-cell EIS further indicates SPEAR-specific impedance features consistent with pore reduction (filling) during LixSi formation. In full cells, SPEAR prelithiation increases the initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) and accelerates SEI formation and stabilization with Li1.38Si reaching 99.4% coulombic efficiency (CE) by cycle 2.

Musgrove, Amanda [ORNL] (ORCID:0009000220910389)↗

DOE OSTI2025

Novel Superionic Na Conductors for Solid‐State Na batteries: Materials and Interface

This project aims to advance the fundamental understanding on how the cation or anion doping influence on the crystal structure, phase stability and ion transport of novel Na superionic conductors. Specifically, we focus on the Na 3-x A x SbS 4-y X y family solid electrolytes (A: cation dopant, X: anion dopant), a class of promising materials for all-solid-state sodium batteries owing to their high ionic conductivity and compositional tunability. By integrating materials synthesis, neutron scattering, and electrochemical characterization and theoretical simulations, this project sees to elucidate 1) how does the synthesis approaches (solid-state reaction, low-temperature reaction) on the phase purity and doping process; 2) how chemical doping (A: cation dopants such as Sn; X: anion dopants such as Se, F) modulate lattice dynamics and Na+ migration as well as interface stability toward Na metal. Specifically, this project’s proposed technology involves three objectives: (1) synthesize novel Na-ion conductors (anion or cation doped Na 3 SbS 4 ) with high phase purity and examine their structural features (e.g., phase stability); (2) understand Na-ion conductive properties of new Na-ion conductors through a combination of experimental characterizations and theoretical simulations; (3) investigate the interface stability of novel Na superionic conductors with electrode materials in solid-state Na batteries. These objectives will be achieved through combined experimental synthesis/characterizations and computational approaches. The obtained knowledge will provide a comprehensive synthesis-structure-property correlation, enabling the rational design of novel solid-state conductors with excellent conductivity and stability.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗