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NASA NTRS2018

Development of High Power Hall Thruster Systems to Enable the NASA Exploration Vision

The next phase of space exploration missions requires high power Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP) systems for large-scale science missions and cargo transportation. Development is underway at Aerojet Rocketdyne on Hall thruster systems that are intended to bracket the needs of future NASA SEP missions in support of space exploration. The Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) program is developing and qualifying a 13.3kW Hall thruster system to be demonstrated on the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE), which is intended to be the first element of a Lunar Outpost Platform - Gateway (LOP-G). The NextSTEP program is integrating a nested Hall thruster into a 100kW system and testing it for 100 hours. These two programs will provide a path to efficient in-space propulsion that will allow NASA to transfer the large amounts of cargo that is needed to support human missions - first to the moon and then on to Mars. The Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) program is completing development, qualification and delivery of five flight 13.3kW EP systems to NASA. The flight AEPS system includes a magnetically shielded long-life Hall thruster, Power Processing Unit (PPU) and a Xenon Flow Controller (XFC). The Hall thruster, developed and demonstrated by NASA, operates at input powers up to 12.5kW while providing a specific impulse over an estimated 2800s at an input voltage of 600V. The power processor is designed to accommodate an input voltage range of 95-140V, consistent with operation beyond the orbit of Mars. The integrated system input power is continuously throttleable between 3 and 13.3kW. Component level testing of the EP String has begun with prototype hardware. The NextSTEP program is developing a 100kW Electric Propulsion (EP) system using a nested Hall thruster designed for powers up to 250kW, a modular power processor and a modular mass flow controller. While the program objective is to operate the integrated EP system continuously at 100kW for 100hrs to demonstrate thermal stability and support the development of system life time models, it builds on decades of experience with long-life Hall thrusters and the design is evolvable to a capability of 250kW. Design upgrades that demonstrate the 100kW EP system have been completed and tested. Aerojet Rocketdyne (AR) is excited to support NASA as it extends human reach into deep space and believes that these programs will provide the propulsion to make such missions affordable and sustainable. These systems provide NASA with a range of options to power its deep space transport vehicles. This paper presents the mission requirements for supporting the NASA exploration vision, as well as the status for the high power Hall thruster systems in development.

Jackson, Jerry↗
NASA NTRS1988

Beyond the Station

The NASA Pathfinder program for sending humans and robots to explore the solar system is discussed. The various technologies which are to be developed to support the program are described, emphasizing technology for an in-situ resource-processing plant for production of oxygen on the moon and space nuclear power for propulsion to the outer planets. The use of Pathfinder to validate advanced propulsion concepts and the use of aerobraking to land on Mars are discussed. Communications between Mars and earth are addressed. Mission scenarios currently under consideration for Pathfinder are examined.

Mankins, John C.↗
NASA NTRS1991

The effect of multi-periapse burns on planetary escape and capture

The use of multiple periapse burns to transfer between a planetocentric parking orbit and a hyperbolic trajectory with a high thrust propulsion system having constant, finite thrust is investigated. Such multiple burns offer propellant savings as a consequence of reduced velocity losses which accrue over the finite burn time of thrusting maneuvers. Velocity losses for an earth escape phase are calculated for an optimum steering program over a range of parameters that are typical of a Mars mission. These numerically integrated results are compared to velocity losses evaluated with a leading analytic approximation to establish boundaries within which the accuracy of the analytic approximation is adequate for preliminary mission planning purposes. Finally, results of the investigation are used to define typical benefits of the multi-periapse burn concept for Mars exploration missions.

Horsewood, Jerry L.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Variables to be considered for further human exploration of space

Now embarked on its fourth decade of space exploration, the United States is turning from singular forays to long-term, evolutionary exploration and utilization of space. But while the goals of U.S. space exploration have changed, the many technical variables which exist for mission planners are essentially the same ones an earlier generation faced at the beginning of the Space Age. How these variables are defined and then answered will determine when and in what form future U.S. expeditions will depart for the moon and Mars. This paper discusses both the emerging rationales for a more robust space program, and the many variables such efforts will entail, with the goal of providing a starting point for the many choices space planners will encounter in the future.

Cohen, Aaron↗
NASA NTRS1993

Biological effects and physics of solar and galactic cosmic radiation, Part B; Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institute on Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation, Algarve, Portugal, Oct. 13-23, 1991

Since there is an increasing interest in establishing lunar bases and exploring Mars by manned missions, it is important to develop appropriate risk estimates and radiation protection guidelines. The biological effects and physics of solar and galactic cosmic radiation are examined with respect to the following: the radiation environment of interplanetary space, the biological responses to radiation in space, and the risk estimates for deep space missions. There is a need for a long-term program where ground-based studies can be augmented by flight experiments and an international standardization with respect to data collection, protocol comparison, and formulation of guidelines for future missions.

Swenberg, Charles E.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Organic Contamination Baseline Study in NASA Johnson Space Center Astromaterials Curation Laboratories

Future robotic and human spaceflight missions to the Moon, Mars, asteroids, and comets will require curating astromaterial samples with minimal inorganic and organic contamination to preserve the scientific integrity of each sample. 21st century sample return missions will focus on strict protocols for reducing organic contamination that have not been seen since the Apollo manned lunar landing program. To properly curate these materials, the Astromaterials Acquisition and Curation Office under the Astromaterial Research and Exploration Science Directorate at NASA Johnson Space Center houses and protects all extraterrestrial materials brought back to Earth that are controlled by the United States government. During fiscal year 2012, we conducted a year-long project to compile historical documentation and laboratory tests involving organic investigations at these facilities. In addition, we developed a plan to determine the current state of organic cleanliness in curation laboratories housing astromaterials. This was accomplished by focusing on current procedures and protocols for cleaning, sample handling, and storage. While the intention of this report is to give a comprehensive overview of the current state of organic cleanliness in JSC curation laboratories, it also provides a baseline for determining whether our cleaning procedures and sample handling protocols need to be adapted and/or augmented to meet the new requirements for future human spaceflight and robotic sample return missions.

Calaway, Michael J.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Digital Twins and Living Models at NASA

The idea of a “digital twin” was born at NASA in the 1960s as a “living model” of the Apollo mission. In response to Apollo 13’s oxygen tank explosion and subsequent damage to the main engine, NASA employed multiple simulators to evaluate the failure and extended a physical model of the vehicle to include digital components. This “digital twin” was the first of its kind, allowing for a continuous ingestion of data to model the events leading to up to the accident for forensic analysis and exploration of next steps. Fast forward half a century and NASA, along with others in the aerospace community, continues to develop and utilize high-fidelity digital models of physical systems and components as well as the extreme environments in which they operate. NASA aims to travel further and stay longer in space as we realize the Artemis program, taking us from the moon to Mars by establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon to prepare for missions to Mars. We will no longer be able to rely on constant connectivity with an asset nor be in-the-loop for on-demand human intervention in the event of an anomaly. Further, the importance of digital twins is increasing as we seek alternatives for certification of structures so large that they cannot be fully evaluated in existing test facilities and autonomous systems that are not deterministic. The idea of a digital twin is not a new one. What is new is the scale, ordinality, and non-deterministic nature of the models that are critical to achieving NASA’s goals. Their number and autonomy from each other as well as the reference system is suggestive of a changing ecosystem, returning us the idea of a living model.

Digital Twin↗
NASA NTRS2017

An Overview of Recent Cryogenic Fluid Management Developments

Long-term storage, supply, and transfer of cryogenic fluids are critical capabilities needed to advance the human exploration of space. Technologies and advanced development programs have been pursued to address issues likely to confront the designers and developers of future cryogenic fluid management (CFM) subsystems and propulsion systems. NASA and aerospace industries have continued to conduct research and development for the propulsion applications of cryogenic fluids. From the well known in-space applications, to new applications involving superconducting motors within multiple different aircraft, and a renewed interest in production of oxygen on Mars, NASA continues to probe cryogenic applications within propulsion. This article presents brief reviews of several of the current CFM efforts to support future space missions. NASA GRC is currently focusing on understanding some of the finer points in the application of multilayer insulation. GRC recently finished the activation of a new calorimeter that operates at 20 K with a warm boundary that can operate either around 90 K or at 300 K. Current testing is focused on investigating multiple different seam concepts, initially between temperatures of 300 K and 20 K, and between 20 K and 90 K. One of the larger recent NASA investments has been on the Structural Heat Intercept, Insulation, and Vibration Experiment Rig (SHIIVER). SHIIVER is a 4 m diameter tank that is approximately 1/2 scale of the planned upper stage of the new Space Launch System (SLS) rocket. SHIIVER is focused on demonstrating the thermal benefits of multilayer insulation on the tank domes and boil-off vapor cooling on structural cylinders that hold the tank in-line on the rocket. It will also quantify any damage that may incur during the acoustic environment of over 160 decibels that SLS will experience on its trip to Earth orbit. In support of the possible production of oxygen out of the Mars' atmosphere, a team comprised of four NASA centers (GRC, MSFC, JSC, and KSC) collaborated to investigate multiple different hardware combinations, refrigeration cycles, and integration techniques to minimize power and mass of the storage and liquefaction system. Moreover, high efficiency, high capacity cryocoolers are an element of CFM which is essential for achieving NASA's future long duration missions. Currently in development is a 20W at 20K unit for use with liquid hydrogen. It is scheduled for delivery to NASA in the summer of 2017. Two Phase I SBIRS have recently concluded resulting in the preliminary design of two different 90K units, each having a refrigeration capacity of approximately 150W. Once the development efforts are complete, these high capacity 90K units will be integrated into the design of NASA's Liquid Oxygen (LOX)/Methane applications such as the Lander and Ascent Vehicles, or possibly an in-space stage. CFM technology is critical to the success of missions to Mars, Planetary Exploration, and In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) for cryogenic propellant production. NASA is focusing on the development of CFM technologies needed to provide necessary data and relevant experience to support informed decisions on implementation of design of cryogenic systems for long term space missions. Lessons learned from the described CFM developments would lead to enhanced safety and reliability and enabling technologies which could allow NASA to meet future space exploration goals.

Hedayat, A.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Medical Optimization Network for Space Telemedicine Resources

INTRODUCTION: Long-duration missions beyond low Earth orbit introduce new constraints to the space medical system. Beyond the traditional limitations in mass, power, and volume, consideration must be given to other factors such as the inability to evacuate to Earth, communication delays, and limitations in clinical skillsets. As NASA develops the medical system for an exploration mission, it must have an ability to evaluate the trade space of what resources will be most important. The Medical Optimization Network for Space Telemedicine Resources (MONSTR) was developed over the past year for this reason, and is now a system for managing data pertaining to medical resources and their relative importance when addressing medical conditions. METHODS: The MONSTR web application with a Microsoft SQL database backend was developed and made accessible to Tableau v9.3 for analysis and visualization. The database was initially populated with a list of medical conditions of concern for an exploration mission taken from the Integrated Medical Model (IMM), a probabilistic model designed to quantify in-flight medical risk. A team of physicians working within the Exploration Medical Capability Element of NASA's Human Research Program compiled a list diagnostic and treatment medical resources required to address best- and worst-case scenarios of each medical condition using a terrestrial standard of care and entered this data into the system. This list included both tangible resources (e.g. medical equipment, medications) and intangible resources (e.g. clinical skills required to perform a procedure). The physician team then assigned criticality values to each instance of a resource, representing the importance of that resource to diagnosing or treating its associated condition(s). Medical condition probabilities of occurrence during a Mars mission were pulled from the IMM and imported into the MONSTR database for use within a resource criticality-weighting algorithm. DISCUSSION: The MONSTR tool is a novel approach to assess the relative value of individual resources needed for the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Future work will add resources for prevention and long term care of these conditions. Once data collection is complete, MONSTR will provide the operational and research communities at NASA with information to support informed decisions regarding areas of research investment, future crew training, and medical supplies manifested as part of any exploration medical system.

Rubin, D.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Development of High Power Hall Thruster Systems to Enable the NASA Exploration Vision

The next phase of space exploration missions requires high power Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP) systems for large-scale science missions and cargo transportation. Development is underway at Aerojet Rocketdyne on Hall thruster systems that are intended to bracket the needs of future NASA SEP missions in support of space exploration. The Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) program is developing and qualifying a 13.3kW Hall thruster system to be demonstrated on the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE), which is intended to be the first element of a Lunar Outpost Platform - Gateway (LOP-G). The NextSTEP program is integrating a nested Hall thruster into a 100 kW system and testing it for 100 hours. These two programs will provide a path to efficient in-space propulsion that will allow NASA to transfer the large amounts of cargo that is needed to support human missions - first to the moon and then on to Mars. The Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) program is completing development, qualification and delivery of five flight 13.3kW EP systems to NASA. The flight AEPS system includes a magnetically shielded long-life Hall thruster, Power Processing Unit (PPU) and a Xenon Flow Controller (XFC). The Hall thruster, developed and demonstrated by NASA, operates at input powers up to 12.5 kW while providing a specific impulse over an estimated 2800s at an input voltage of 600V. The power processor is designed to accommodate an input voltage range of 95-140V, consistent with operation beyond the orbit of Mars. The integrated system input power is continuously throttleable between 3 and 13.3kW. Component level testing of the EP String has begun with prototype hardware. The NextSTEP program is developing a 100kW Electric Propulsion (EP) system using a nested Hall thruster designed for powers up to 250kW, a modular power processor and a modular mass flow controller. While the program objective is to operate the integrated EP system continuously at 100kW for 100 hours to demonstrate thermal stability and support the development of system life time models, it builds on decades of experience with long-life Hall thrusters and the design is evolvable to a capability of 250kW. Design upgrades that demonstrate the 100kW EP system have been completed and tested. Aerojet Rocketdyne is excited to support NASA as it extends human reach into deep space and believes that these programs will provide the propulsion to make such missions affordable and sustainable. These systems provide NASA with a range of options to power its deep space transport vehicles. This paper presents the mission requirements for supporting the NASA exploration vision, as well as the status for the high power Hall thruster systems in development.

Jackson, Jerry↗
NASA NTRS1991

NASA Planetary Rover Program

The NASA Planetary Rover Project was initiated in 1989. The emphasis of the work to date has been on development of autonomous navigation technology within the context of a high mobility wheeled vehicle at the JPL and an innovative legged locomotion concept at Carnegie Mellon University. The status and accomplishments of these two efforts are discussed. First, however, background information is given on the three rover types required for the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) whose objective is a manned mission to Mars.

Lavery, David↗
NASA NTRS1990

Exploration Technology Program plans and directions

A summary of the proposed Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) needs that have been identified is presented along with a detailed review of the status of SEI technology planning. Plans are also being formulated to implement an Exploration Technology Program (ETP) that will develop the major technologies required for SEI. The ETP will provide in the near term clear demonstrations of potential exploration technologies, results of research to support SEI architecture decisions, and a foundation of mature technology that is ready to be applied in the first round of SEI missions. A family of functional building blocks has been defined from which both lunar and Mars SEI mission architectures can be constructed.

Aldrich, Arnold↗
NASA NTRS2007

Assessing the Biohazard Potential of Putative Martian Organisms for Exploration Class Human Space Missions

Exploration Class missions to Mars will require precautions against potential contamination by any native microorganisms that may be incidentally pathogenic to humans. While the results of NASA's Viking biology experiments of 1976 have been generally interpreted as inconclusive for surface organisms, the possibility of native surface life has never been ruled out and more recent studies suggest that the case for biological interpretation of the Viking Labeled Release data may now be stronger than it was when the experiments were originally conducted. It is possible that, prior to the first human landing on Mars, robotic craft and sample return missions will provide enough data to know with certainty whether or not future human landing sites harbor extant life forms. However, if native life is confirmed, it will be problematic to determine whether any of its species may present a medical risk to astronauts. Therefore, it will become necessary to assess empirically the risk that the planet contains pathogens based on terrestrial examples of pathogenicity and to take a reasonably cautious approach to bio-hazard protection. A survey of terrestrial pathogens was conducted with special emphasis on those pathogens whose evolution has not depended on the presence of animal hosts. The history of the development and implementation of Apollo anticontamination protocol and recent recommendations of the NRC Space Studies Board regarding Mars were reviewed. Organisms can emerge in nature in the absence of indigenous animal hosts and both infectious and non-infectious human pathogens are theoretically possible on Mars. The prospect of Martian surface life, together with the existence of a diversity of routes by which pathogenicity has emerged on Earth, suggests that the possibility of human pathogens on Mars, while low, is not zero. Since the discovery and study of Martian life can have long-term benefits for humanity, the risk that Martian life might include pathogens should not be an obstacle to human exploration. As a precaution, however, it is recommended that EVA suits be decontaminated when astronauts enter surface habitats when returning from field activity and that biosafety protocol approximating laboratory BSL 2 be developed for astronauts working in laboratories on the Martian surface. Quarantine of astronauts and Martian materials arriving on Earth should also be part of a human Mars mission and this and the surface biosafety program should be integral to human expeditions from the earliest stages of the mission planning.

Warmflash, David↗
NASA NTRS2017

NASA's Space Launch System: Progress Report

After more than four decades exploring the space environment from low Earth orbit and developing long-duration spaceflight operational experience with the International Space Station (ISS), NASA is once again preparing to send explorers into deep space. Development, test and manufacturing is now underway on the launch vehicle, the crew spacecraft and the ground processing and launch facilities to support human and robotic missions to the moon, Mars and the outer solar system. The enabling launch vehicle for these ambitious new missions is the Space Launch System (SLS), managed by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). Since the program began in 2011, the design has passed Critical Design Review, and extensive development, test and flight hardware has been produced by every major element of the SLS vehicle. Testing continues on engines, boosters, tanks and avionics. While the program has experienced engineering challenges typical of a new development, it continues to make steady progress toward the first SLS mission in roughly two years and a sustained cadence of missions thereafter. This paper will discuss these and other technical and SLS programmatic successes and challenges over the past year and provide a preview of work ahead before first flight.

Cook, Jerry↗
NASA NTRS1974

Unmanned solar systems exploration - An arena for international cooperation

Mission profiles for a Mars Surface Sample Return (MSSR) mission are considered. A profile using separate launches for a lander/ascent module and an orbiter/return system could use present technology and is appropriate for international cooperation. The achievement of clean interfaces between major building blocks and ease of controlling back contamination are advantages offered by the concept. A spatially distributed surface sample could be obtained by using multiple landers delivering samples to a common orbiter. The Pioneer Venus program, originally planned as a cooperative NASA-ESRO project, resulted in development of a standardized spacecraft bus yielding benefits at minimized cost. The first joint US-European planetary mission now planned is the launch of a Pioneer class orbiter to Jupiter in 1980. Feasibility studies are being conducted.

Herman, D. H.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Software Construction and Analysis Tools for Future Space Missions

NASA and its international partners will increasingly depend on software-based systems to implement advanced functions for future space missions, such as Martian rovers that autonomously navigate long distances exploring geographic features formed by surface water early in the planet's history. The software-based functions for these missions will need to be robust and highly reliable, raising significant challenges in the context of recent Mars mission failures attributed to software faults. After reviewing these challenges, this paper describes tools that have been developed at NASA Ames that could contribute to meeting these challenges; 1) Program synthesis tools based on automated inference that generate documentation for manual review and annotations for automated certification. 2) Model-checking tools for concurrent object-oriented software that achieve memorability through synergy with program abstraction and static analysis tools.

Lowry, Michael R.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Field Simulation of a Drilling Mission to Mars to Search for Subsurface Life

The discovery of near surface ground ice by the Mars Odyssey mission and the abundant evidence for recent Gulley features observed by the Mars Global Surveyor mission support longstanding theoretical arguments for subsurface liquid water on Mars. Thus, implementing the Mars program goal to search for life points to drilling on Mars to reach liquid water, collecting samples and analyzing them with instrumentation to detect in situ organisms and biomarker compounds. Searching for life in the subsurface of Mars will require drilling, sample extraction and handling, and new technologies to find and identify biomarker compounds and search for living organisms. In spite of its obvious advantages, robotic drilling for Mars exploration is in its technological infancy and has yet to be demonstrated in even a terrestrial field environment.

Stoker, C. R.↗
NASA NTRS2007

A New Heavy-Lift Capability for Space Exploration: NASA's Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is developing new launch systems and preparing to retire the Space Shuttle by 2010, as directed in the United States (U.S.) Vision for Space Exploration. The Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle (CLV) and the Ares V heavy-lift Cargo Launch Vehicle (CaLV) systems will build upon proven, reliable hardware derived from the Apollo-Saturn and Space Shuttle programs to deliver safe, reliable, affordable space transportation solutions. This approach leverages existing aerospace talent and a unique infrastructure, as well as legacy knowledge gained from nearly 50 years' experience developing space hardware. Early next decade, the Ares I will launch the new Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to the International Space Station (ISS) or to low-Earth orbit for trips to the Moon and, ultimately, Mars. Late next decade, the Ares V's Earth Departure Stage will carry larger payloads such as the lunar lander into orbit, and the Crew Exploration Vehicle will dock with it for missions to the Moon, where astronauts will explore new territories and conduct science and technology experiments. Both Ares I and Ares V are being designed to support longer future trips to Mars. The Exploration Launch Projects Office is designing, developing, testing, and evaluating both launch vehicle systems in partnership with other NASA Centers, Government agencies, and industry contractors. This paper provides top-level information regarding the genesis and evolution of the baseline configuration for the Ares V heavy-lift system. It also discusses riskbased, management strategies, such as building on powerful hardware and promoting common features between the Ares I and Ares V systems to reduce technical, schedule, and cost risks, as well as development and operations costs. Finally, it summarizes several notable accomplishments since October 2005, when the Exploration Launch Projects effort officially kicked off, and looks ahead at work planned for 2007 and beyond.

Sumrall, John P.↗