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DOE OSTI2026

Tokamak Energy’s pre-concept design for a fusion power plant: an overview of ST-E1

Climate change and rapidly rising energy demand, driven in part by artificial intelligence and data-centre growth, create an urgent need for stable, low-carbon, and abundant power. Fusion is a promising long-term solution, yet its commercialisation faces a fundamental paradox in today’s investment environment: pilot plants are essential to de-risk physics, engineering, and operations, but their limited lifetime energy output and high upfront costs make them difficult to finance. This paper presents Tokamak Energy’s response: ST-E1, a pre-concept design for a low-aspect-ratio tokamak power plant engineered specifically to overcome this challenge. ST-E1 is designed from the outset for phased operation—pilot and commercial phases, with an upgrade phase in between—with emphasis on commercial viability, maintainability, nuclear engineering, modularity, and upgradability. A key design principle is the deliberate separation of long-lived assets, such as the magnet cage and vacuum vessel, from replaceable in-vessel systems. This provides an attractive and credible investment approach to generate operational data and de-risk key technologies while preserving most capital-intensive assets for later commercial phases. The architecture supports continuous optimisation toward high net electric power (targeting 800–1000 MW net electric), a normalised capital expenditure of $\$$ 12–14k/kW of net electric power, and high availability (targeting > 80%). A tokamak core with a 5 m major radius, aspect ratio of 2.3, and on-plasma axis toroidal field of 5.25 T was selected to meet these objectives. This paper summarises the ST-E1 design philosophy, principal features, and development methodology. It introduces a Focus Collection of 11 papers detailing the pre-concept design of the entire tokamak and corresponding plant.

ST-E1↗

DOE OSTI2024

Phase-field modeling of stored-energy-driven grain growth with intra-granular variation in dislocation density

Abstract We present a phase-field (PF) model to simulate the microstructure evolution occurring in polycrystalline materials with a variation in the intra-granular dislocation density. The model accounts for two mechanisms that lead to the grain boundary migration: the driving force due to capillarity and that due to the stored energy arising from a spatially varying dislocation density. In addition to the order parameters that distinguish regions occupied by different grains, we introduce dislocation density fields that describe spatial variation of the dislocation density. We assume that the dislocation density decays as a function of the distance the grain boundary has migrated. To demonstrate and parameterize the model, we simulate microstructure evolution in two dimensions, for which the initial microstructure is based on real-time experimental data. Additionally, we applied the model to study the effect of a cyclic heat treatment (CHT) on the microstructure evolution. Specifically, we simulated stored-energy-driven grain growth during three thermal cycles, as well as grain growth without stored energy that serves as a baseline for comparison. We showed that the microstructure evolution proceeded much faster when the stored energy was considered. A non-self-similar evolution was observed in this case, while a nearly self-similar evolution was found when the microstructure evolution is driven solely by capillarity. These results suggest a possible mechanism for the initiation of abnormal grain growth during CHT. Finally, we demonstrate an integrated experimental-computational workflow that utilizes the experimental measurements to inform the PF model and its parameterization, which provides a foundation for the development of future simulation tools capable of quantitative prediction of microstructure evolution during non-isothermal heat treatment.

Materials Science↗

DOE OSTI2024

The Active Asteroids Citizen Science Program: Overview and First Results

Abstract We present the Citizen Science program Active Asteroids and describe discoveries stemming from our ongoing project. Our NASA Partner program is hosted on the Zooniverse online platform and launched on 2021 August 31, with the goal of engaging the community in the search for active asteroids—asteroids with comet-like tails or comae. We also set out to identify other unusual active solar system objects, such as active Centaurs, active quasi-Hilda asteroids (QHAs), and Jupiter-family comets (JFCs). Active objects are rare in large part because they are difficult to identify, so we ask volunteers to assist us in searching for active bodies in our collection of millions of images of known minor planets. We produced these cutout images with our project pipeline that makes use of publicly available Dark Energy Camera data. Since the project launch, roughly 8300 volunteers have scrutinized some 430,000 images to great effect, which we describe in this work. In total, we have identified previously unknown activity on 15 asteroids, plus one Centaur, that were thought to be asteroidal (i.e., inactive). Of the asteroids, we classify four as active QHAs, seven as JFCs, and four as active asteroids, consisting of one main-belt comet (MBC) and three MBC candidates. We also include our findings concerning known active objects that our program facilitated, an unanticipated avenue of scientific discovery. These include discovering activity occurring during an orbital epoch for which objects were not known to be active, and the reclassification of objects based on our dynamical analyses.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗

DOE OSTI2024

Alignments in the orientation of radio jets from AGN and their host galaxies

It is well established that active galactic nuclei (AGNs) play an important role in the evolution of galaxies. These AGNs can be linked to the accretion processes onto massive black holes and past merger events in their host galaxies, which may lead to different alignments of the jets with respect to the host galaxies. This paper presents a study of the position angle (PA) differences between radio and optical images of radio-AGNs based on the second data release (DR2) of the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) Two-Meter Sky Survey (LoTSS), theKarl G. JanskyVery Large Array Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters Survey (FIRST), the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) Legacy Imaging Surveys, and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). We assessed PA measurement biases in the data and classified the radio-AGNs based on the radio luminosity and infrared colour from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE). This resulted in the largest sample of radio AGNs with reliable radio and optical PA measurements published to date, with a total of 3682 AGNs. The PA difference (dPA) distributions for the radio-AGN sample show a prominent minor-axis alignment tendency. Based on some simple assumptions, we simulated the projection effect to estimate the intrinsic jet-galaxy alignment. The observed dPA distribution can be well described by a two-component jet-alignment model in which one component is more aligned with the minor axis of the host galaxy than the other. The fitting results indicate that the jet alignment is dependent on radio luminosity and the shape of the host galaxies, with the jets being more likely to be aligned with the minor axis of the galaxy for lower radio luminosity and for optically more elongated radio-AGNs. The minor-axis alignment of the entire sample may suggest a coherent accretion model present in most AGN host galaxies, while a considerable number of luminous radio-AGNs with massive host galaxies might have undergone accretion – according to the chaotic model – or past merger events.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗

DOE OSTI2023

Smart Droplets Stabilized by Designer Surfactants: From Biomimicry to Active Motion to Materials Healing

The science and technologies of emulsion droplets have been a long‐term focus of extensive research endeavors for their practical utility across a breadth of industries, including pharmaceutical products, oil recovery processes, and the food sciences. However, with advances in materials chemistry and characterization tools, new emerging areas are arising with a focus on “smart droplets”. The versatility of emulsion droplets across is based on their ability to partition and create isolated systems with properties defined by the liquid–liquid interface, while preparative routes allow manipulation of droplet size, stability, and encapsulated contents. As described in this article, significant efforts are being devoted to creating new types of droplets by “activating” this interface through the incorporation of reactive structures that trigger droplet response to applied or environmental stimuli (e.g., pH, temperature, salt, or external fields). Moreover, parallels between droplets and live cells inspire efforts to conceive systems that resemble biological motifs or that can produce cellular behaviors that imitate biology (e.g., swarming, communication, or motion). Here, the authors highlight recent advances in smart droplets, with emphasis on organic, polymer, and/or particle surfactants that give rise to inter‐droplet communication (via aggregation, fusion, division, or mass transfer), droplet vehicles for controlled delivery, autonomous droplet motion, and tunable emulsion inversion. Especially emphasized is the macromolecular design to produce reactive and functional surfactants, which are crucial to responsive droplet behavior and their underlying mechanisms. More generally, the exquisite interplay between materials science and biology inspires the review of this research area that provides unique opportunities for insight and inspiration into the capabilities of new droplet designs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Corn grown on dredged sediments alters rat behavior in the elevated plus maze via the gut mycobiome

The use of marginal lands for growing food has increased worldwide. Many of these lands are supplemented with soil amendments to enhance their productivity, but they may also introduce contaminants depending on their origin. The use of sediments dredged from commercial waterways as a soil amendment has increased in recent years. However, there is significant concern regarding their potential to negatively affect public health by transferring contaminants, like metals, to the food supply. This study examined the behavior, microbiome and physiology of rats fed corn grown on dredged sediments with rats fed commercial feed corn and related those metrics to kernel metal content. Metal content did not differ between kernels grown on dredged sediments and feed corn for most metals except iron which was greater in commercial feed corn. Although there is some variability by animal response, animals fed corn grown on dredged sediments had a gut microbial community that generally promoted anxiety-like behavior while animals fed feed corn had a gut microbial community that promoted a more typical response. These findings suggest the effect of corn grown on dredged sediments on public health is complex and highlights the need for further investigation.

Rua, Megan [Wright State University, Dayton, OH]↗

DOE OSTI2026

Discovery of magnetic-field-tunable density modulations and spin tilting in a layered altermagnet

Altermagnets recently emerged as a new class of magnetic materials, arising from specific spin crystal symmetries. They exhibit a spin-polarized electronic band structure similar to ferromagnets, yet possess zero net magnetization, promising exotic properties. Here we study a layered triangular lattice altermagnet, cobalt-intercalated NbSe 2 using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/S). Spectroscopic-imaging STM and spin-polarized STM reveals emergent 2 a 0 tri-directional charge and spin density modulations on the selenium surface. Density functional theory simulations suggest these modulations reflect the underlying cobalt superstructure. We discover that an out-of-plane magnetic field tunes the modulation amplitudes and the electronic density-of-states in a manner dependent on the field direction and strength. This behavior is attributed to the field-induced tilting of cobalt spins, which can have profound implications on the electronic properties of the altermagnet. Our results provide atomic-scale insights to uncover a magnetic-field tunable altermagnetic band structure, highlight the importance of understanding spin canting in altermagnets.

condensed-matter physics↗

DOE OSTI2025

Exact block encoding of imaginary time evolution with universal quantum neural networks

We develop a constructive approach to generate quantum neural networks capable of representing the exact thermal states of all many-body qubit Hamiltonians. The Trotter expansion of the imaginary time propagator is implemented through an exact block encoding by means of a unitary, restricted Boltzmann machine architecture. Marginalization over the hidden-layer neurons (auxiliary qubits) creates the nonunitary action on the visible layer. Then, we introduce a unitary deep Boltzmann machine architecture in which the hidden-layer qubits are allowed to couple laterally to other hidden qubits. We prove that this wave-function is closed under the action of the imaginary time propagator and, more generally, can represent the action of a universal set of quantum gate operations. We provide analytic expressions for the coefficients for both architectures, thus enabling exact network representations of thermal states without stochastic optimization of the network parameters. In the limit of large imaginary time, the yields the ground state of the system. The number of qubits grows linearly with the number of interactions and total imaginary time for a fixed interaction order. Both networks can be readily implemented on quantum hardware via midcircuit measurements of auxiliary qubits. If only one auxiliary qubit is measured and reset, the circuit depth scales linearly with imaginary time and number of interactions, while the width is constant. Alternatively, one can employ a number of auxiliary qubits linearly proportional to the number of interactions, and circuit depth grows linearly with imaginary time only. Every midcircuit measurement has a postselection success probability, and the overall success probability is equal to the product of the probabilities of the midcircuit measurements.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Treatment of Lagoon Dairy Manure Wastewater via Iron Electrocoagulation, Microfiltration, and Adsorption

Dairy manure wastewater generated by flushing barn cow waste contains nutrients, pathogens, and organic and inorganic contaminants. This study utilized a process consisting of iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC), microfiltration (MF), and activated carbon (AC) adsorption to treat farm wastewater and explore the reclamation of clean water for irrigation and livestock consumption. Significant removal (>99.9%) of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC), phosphorus (P), turbidity, and microorganisms, as well as ions including magnesium, calcium, sulfur, and silica was achieved by the combined EC-MF-AC process. Specifically, a charge loading of ∼37,500 C/L in a continuous-flow EC configuration, followed by MF, achieved more than 95% removal of TOC and COD. Characterization of produced flocs and foam via scanning-electron microscopy with energy-dispersal spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the removal of ions, including calcium, sulfur, and silica. A key finding was the electrocatalytic conversion of nitrogen species to ammonia gas through the intermediate reduction of nitrate/nitrite, which led to ∼60% total nitrogen (TN) removal. AC treatment further improved TN removal to ∼70%. The Fe-EC process also eradicated >99.9% of bacteria. Preliminary process cost assessment, based on recycled materials for EC electrodes, showed significant cost savings (∼2 times) compared to commercial electrodes.

Dutta, Swapnamoy [ORNL]↗

DOE OSTI2025

Propane Activation on Pt Electrodes at Room Temperature: Quantification of Adsorbate Identity and Coverage

Abstract C−H bond activation is the first step in manufacturing chemical products from readily available light alkane feedstock and typically proceeds via carbon‐intensive thermal processes. The ongoing emphasis on decarbonization via electrification motivates low‐temperature electrochemical alternatives that could lead to sustainable chemicals production. Platinum (Pt) electrocatalysts have shown activity towards reacting alkanes; however, little is known about propane electrocatalytic activation and conditions suitable for enabling selective oxidation to valuable products. Herein, we utilize a combination of electrochemical mass spectrometry (ECMS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations to elucidate the potential dependence of propane activation on Pt electrocatalysts. Results show a strong dependence of adsorption on the applied potential in room‐temperature aqueous acidic electrolyte, with a maximum coverage of propane‐derived adsorbates at 0.30 V vs RHE. Using charge deconvolution and deuterated experiments, the mechanism of adsorption was elucidated, and C 3 H 2 * was determined as the average dehydrogenated propane‐derived adsorbate species. DFT calculations further corroborate these results, showing that the formation of deeply dehydrogenated species is energetically accessible at room temperature. The combined theoretical and experimental findings yield insights for selective activation of paraffinic C−H bonds at room temperature, aqueous conditions—a critical step towards decarbonized chemical manufacturing.

Chemistry↗

DOE OSTI2024

Direct Visualization of Defect‐Controlled Diffusion in van der Waals Gaps

Abstract Diffusion processes govern fundamental phenomena such as phase transformations, doping, and intercalation in van der Waals (vdW) bonded materials. Here, the diffusion dynamics of W atoms by visualizing the motion of individual atoms at three different vdW interfaces: hexagonal boron nitride (BN)/vacuum, BN/BN, and BN/WSe 2 , by recording scanning transmission electron microscopy movies is quantified. Supported by density functional theory (DFT) calculations, it is inferred that in all cases diffusion is governed by intermittent trapping at electron beam‐generated defect sites. This leads to diffusion properties that depend strongly on the number of defects. These results suggest that diffusion and intercalation processes in vdW materials are highly tunable and sensitive to crystal quality. The demonstration of imaging, with high spatial and temporal resolution, of layers and individual atoms inside vdW heterostructures offers possibilities for direct visualization of diffusion and atomic interactions, as well as for experiments exploring atomic structures, their in situ modification, and electrical property measurements of active devices combined with atomic resolution imaging.

Chemistry↗

DOE OSTI2026

Nanoscale Compositional and Strain Gradients Enable High‐Speed and Amplitude‐Resolved Pyroelectric Sensing

The frequency response of pyroelectric sensors is fundamentally governed by thermal time constant (τth, determined by thermal mass and thermal conductance) and electrical impedance arising from film capacitance and readout circuit. Conventional bulk LiTaO3 detectors are optimized for high responsivity at low modulation frequencies (0.1-10 Hz), possessing a large τth that thermally averages rapid temperature oscillations at elevated modulation frequencies, limiting fidelity in resolving dynamic varying thermal signals. Here, compositional and strain gradients are introduced into 100-nm-thick relaxor-ferroelectric films reducing τth to ≈2 µs and producing built-in potentials (≈1.45 V or 145 kV cm-1) that enhance the pyroelectric coefficient and suppress the dielectric constant. This enables complementary dual-mode operation by enhancing current-mode electrical responsivity and improving the voltage-mode figure of merit - advantageous for superior temperature resolution (ΔTmin ≈ 30 µK). The responsivity peak shifts to near 1 kHz (>2500-times higher than conventional bulk sensors), with measurable responsivity extending to a carrier frequency of 100 kHz and amplitude-resolved detection at modulation frequencies up to 15 kHz. These results establish nanoscale internal-field engineering can reshape electro-thermal trade-off in pyroelectric thin films toward zero-bias, high-thermal-sensitivity, and amplitude-resolved thermal sensing across a wide frequency bandwidth.

Lin, Ching‐Che↗

DOE OSTI2025

Robust Biaxial Anisotropy and Switchable Néel Vectors in LaFeO 3 Epitaxial Films

Antiferromagnets with highly stable but switchable Néel vectors are desired for antiferromagnetic spintronics with ultrafast speed and terahertz frequencies. Electrical switching of antiferromagnetic insulators has been demonstrated using binary antiferromagnets, while large families of complex antiferromagnets such as perovskites are largely unexplored. Here, we show that epitaxial LaFeO 3 thin films on SrTiO 3 (001) exhibit clear, robust biaxial anisotropy with a spin-flop field of a few tesla. Angular-dependent spin-Hall magnetoresistance (SMR) characterizations of Pt/LaFeO 3 bilayers with the current channel along SrTiO 3 [100] and [110] reveal distinct, intriguing shapes and field dependence. Simulations using a macrospin model accurately describe the main behavior and fine features of the SMR data from which key antiferromagnetic parameters are extracted. Furthermore, remanent SMR measurement confirms the high fidelity of the Néel vector along either easy axis of the biaxial anisotropy, indicating that epitaxial films of LaFeO 3 and potentially other perovskite antiferromagnets offer an attractive platform for antiferromagnetic spintronics.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗

DOE OSTI2026

Powering Large Loads: Solutions Across Transmission, Utility, and Facility Scales

This report synthesizes current strategies for accommodating large load growth through a review of publicly available technical literature and media insights around the United States (U.S.). Solutions are organized across three implementation scales (transmission, utility, and facility) and categorized according to common implementation pathways (including structural expansion, operations and efficiency, upgrades, and planning and policy).

Valdez, Raquel Lynn [Sandia National Laboratories ↗

DOE OSTI2026

Wyoming Trails Carbon Hub (WyoTCH)

The Wyoming Trails Carbon Hub (WyoTCH) project completed a front-end engineering and design (FEED) study for a commercial-scale, open-access carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) transport pipeline in Wyoming under U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Award DEFE0032347, funded through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Carbon Capture Technology Program and administered by the National Energy Technology Laboratory. The project’s approach of designing a multi-source, multi-destination pipeline, rather than a dedicated line serving a single project, would lower the barrier to entry for individual CO 2 projects. The projects would leverage Wyoming's concentrated industrial and power generation CO 2 sources, its existing CO 2 pipeline infrastructure, and its extensive CO 2 storage and utilization capacity. This is the project's final technical report.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2024

A First-Principles Study of the Structural and Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Tungsten-Based Plasma-Facing Materials

Tungsten (W) and tungsten alloys are being considered as leading candidates for structural and functional materials in future fusion energy devices. The most attractive properties of tungsten for the design of magnetic and inertial fusion energy reactors are its high melting point, high thermal conductivity, low sputtering yield, and low long-term disposal radioactive footprint. Despite these relevant features, there is a lack of understanding of how the structural and mechanical properties of W-based alloys are affected by the temperature in fusion power plants. In this work, we present a study on the thermo-mechanical properties of five W-based plasma-facing materials. First-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations are combined with the quasi-harmonic approximation (QHA) theory to investigate the electronic, structural, mechanical, and thermal properties of these W-based alloys as a function of temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion, temperature-dependent elastic constants, and several elastic parameters, including bulk and Young’s modulus, are calculated. Our work advances the understanding of the structural and thermo-mechanical behavior of W-based materials, thus providing insights into the design and selection of candidate plasma-facing materials in fusion energy devices.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Heavy Element Spectroscopy in the Gas Phase

Actinides are inherently unstable and undergo nuclear decay processes with a concurrent release of energy. Consequently, they are used for nuclear power generation, nuclear weapons, and nuclear medicine. However, the radioactive decay processes also pose significant technological problems for the safe treatment and storage of spent nuclear materials. Cost-effective extraction of the actinides is the key first step in the remediation of nuclear waste, but the appropriate chemical means have yet to be determined. Our present understanding of the chemistry of actinides is limited, with the role of the 5f electrons posing a set of particularly challenging questions. The work reported here is focused on the use of electronic spectroscopy to probe the bonding of small molecules in the gas phase that contains thorium or uranium. Analyses of these data, carried out within the framework of ligand field theory, reveal clear evidence that the 5f electrons are spectators that retain their atomic metal ion character.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2026

Storing Affordability: Battery Storage as an Asset to Reduce Data Center Cost Shifts

This report examines how battery energy storage systems (BESS) can help utilities accommodate large load growth while protecting affordability for existing ratepayers. Rapid growth in electricity demand from artificial intelligence (AI) data centers is straining the U.S. grid. Furthermore, many new data centers are entering rural markets, which could offer economic benefits but may also pose implementation challenges for smaller utilities. At the same time, retail electricity prices are increasing faster than inflation, elevating customer affordability as a key challenge. While data centers have not been the primary driver of increases in residential prices to date, they have pushed wholesale energy and capacity prices higher in several markets. Fundamental utility cost-allocation principles show that data center growth can be rate-positive for existing customers only if new peak demand grows faster than the costs a utility must incur to serve it. Several factors, including a utility’s degree of wholesale market exposure, forecast uncertainty and stranded-asset risk, and tariff design can determine the outcome of load growth on retail rates. Energy storage can make several affordability contributions in the face of this landscape of uncertainty and market volatility, including deferral of higher-cost grid investments through improved utilization of existing assets and flexibility of new large loads, insulation from volatile wholesale prices through peak shaving, and reliability support to address grid risks stemming from the behavior of AI data center loads. Different potential BESS deployment pathways—utility-scale front-of-the-meter systems, aggregated small-scale storage installations, and data center-sited behind-the-meter storage—are compared against each other and against conventional capacity alternatives. This framework is intended as a conceptual resource to utilities, particularly smaller public utilities with rural service territories, who may be considering the role that energy storage can play in insulating existing ratepayers from data center cost shifts.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗