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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2017

Thermalization, Freeze-out, and Noise: Deciphering Experimental Quantum Annealers

By contrasting the performance of two quantum annealers operating at different temperatures, we address recent questions related to the role of temperature in these devices and their function as “Boltzmann samplers.” Using a method to reliably calculate the degeneracies of the energy levels of large-scale spin-glass instances, we are able to estimate the instance-dependent effective temperature from the output of annealing runs. In this work, our results corroborate the “freeze-out” picture which posits two regimes, one in which the final state corresponds to a Boltzmann distribution of the final Hamiltonian with a well-defined “effective temperature” determined at a freeze-out point late in the annealing schedule, and another regime in which such a distribution is not necessarily expected. We find that the output distributions of the annealers do not, in general, correspond to a classical Boltzmann distribution for the final Hamiltonian. We also find that the effective temperatures at different programing cycles fluctuate greatly, with the effect worsening with problem size. We discuss the implications of our results for the design of future quantum annealers to act as more-effective Boltzmann samplers and for the programing of such annealers.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2017

International Conference on Metalorganic Vapor Chase Epitaxy (ICMOVPE) XVIII

The ICMOVPE-XVIII conference created meaningful opportunities for intellectual challenge, networking opportunities, and intellectual stimulation for graduate students, Post-Doctoral Fellows and all attendees. This technical and social program further provided many opportunities for communication, brainstorming, and transfer of information as well as the development of collaborations across many institutions and companies. We had a significant number of members of underrepresented groups in STEM attending this conference. We also are publishing the proceedings of this conference with the Journal of Crystal Growth, a journal which receives wide electronic distribution in many academic institutions world-wide, making the technical information presented at ICMOVPE-XVIII have a much broader impact than would otherwise be possible. ICMOVPE XVIII had a total of 216 presentations and of these; there were 70 Student oral or poster presentations. The funds we obtained for student support from the Department of Energy were distributed among the registered students and Post Docs to supplement the full cost of registration of $1,100 each for regular registration to the reduced rate of at $850 each for graduate students and Post Docs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Uncertainty Quantification for Capacity Expansion Planning

This report quantifies the uncertainty in output decisions from a Capacity Expansion Planning (CEP) model. The need to understand how uncertainties within CEP models and modeling assumptions affect Quantities of Interest (QoIs) such as expansion and operating costs, as well as expansion decisions remains an ongoing challenge in scientific research and industrial operations. This area of research is particularly important for models which seek to capture how large networks will evolve and operate under increased sources of variable generation, i.e., higher penetration of renewable technologies such as solar and wind generators. Uncertainty quantification (UQ) of CEP models which estimate expansion costs and decisions, and production cost models which estimate operating costs and dispatch decisions, is a key focus of research at NREL. The Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) represents a state-of-the-art CEP model and considers a range of possible grid evolutions in an attempt to identify key drivers, ramifications, and decisions which contribute to better informed investment and policy decisions. However, research to quantify how uncertainties and model assumptions, such as unit commitment (UC), within ReEDS may be affecting its outputs remains challenging due to to size and complexity of the model

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Sandia National Laboratories Annual Site Environmental Report, 2019: New Mexico

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the United States Department of Energy (DOE) National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Sandia Field Office administers the contract and oversees contractor operations at Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico. Activities at the site support research and development programs with a wide variety of national security missions, resulting in technologies for nonproliferation, homeland security, energy and infrastructure, and defense systems and assessments. DOE and its management and operating contractor are committed to safeguarding the environment, assessing sustainability practices, and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this Annual Site Environmental Report. This report summarizes the environmental protection and monitoring programs in place at Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico, during calendar year 2019. Environmental topics include air quality, ecology, environmental restoration, oil storage, site sustainability, terrestrial surveillance, waste management, water quality, and implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act. This report is prepared in accordance with and as required by DOE O 231.1B, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety, and Health Reporting, and has been approved for public distribution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

2022 Annual Site Environmental Report for Sandia National Laboratories, Tonopah Test Range, Nevada

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the. U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Sandia Field Office administers the contract and oversees contractor operations at Sandia National Laboratories, Tonopah Test Range. Activities at the site are conducted in support of U.S. Department of Energy weapons programs and have operated at the site since 1957. The U.S. Department of Energy and its management and operating contractor are committed to safeguarding file environment, assessing sustainability practices, and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this annual site environmental report. This report summarizes the environmental protection, restoration, and monitoring programs in place at Sandia National Laboratories, Tonopah Test Range during calendar year 2022. Environmental topics include cultural resource management, chemical management, air quality, ecology, environmental restoration, oil storage, site sustainability, terrestrial surveillance, waste management, water quality, wastewater discharge, and implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act. This report is prepared in accordance with and as required by DOE 0 231.IB, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety and Health Reporting and has been approved for public distribution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2010

Electron Beam Return-Current Losses in Solar Flares: Initial Comparison of Analytical and Numerical Results

Accelerated electrons play an important role in the energetics of solar flares. Understanding the process or processes that accelerate these electrons to high, nonthermal energies also depends on understanding the evolution of these electrons between the acceleration region and the region where they are observed through their hard X-ray or radio emission. Energy losses in the co-spatial electric field that drives the current-neutralizing return current can flatten the electron distribution toward low energies. This in turn flattens the corresponding bremsstrahlung hard X-ray spectrum toward low energies. The lost electron beam energy also enhances heating in the coronal part of the flare loop. Extending earlier work by Knight & Sturrock (1977), Emslie (1980), Diakonov & Somov (1988), and Litvinenko & Somov (1991), I have derived analytical and semi-analytical results for the nonthermal electron distribution function and the self-consistent electric field strength in the presence of a steady-state return-current. I review these results, presented previously at the 2009 SPD Meeting in Boulder, CO, and compare them and computed X-ray spectra with numerical results obtained by Zharkova & Gordovskii (2005, 2006). The phYSical significance of similarities and differences in the results will be emphasized. This work is supported by NASA's Heliophysics Guest Investigator Program and the RHESSI Project.

Holman, Gordon↗
NASA NTRS1998

Thermophotovoltaic Energy Conversion Development Program

Completely integrated thermophotovoltaic (TPV) power sources in the range of 100 to 500 watts are being developed. The technical approach taken in this project focuses on optimizing the integrated performance of the primary subsystems in order to yield high energy conversion efficiency and cost effectiveness. An important aspect of the approach is the use of a narrow band fibrous emitter radiating to a bandgap matched photovoltaic array to minimize thermal and optical recuperation requirements, as well as the non-recoverable heat losses. For the prototype system, fibrous ytterbia emitters radiating in a narrow band centered at 980 nm are matched with high efficiency silicon photoconverters. The integrated system includes a dielectric stack filter for optical energy recovery and a ceramic recuperator for thermal energy recovery. The prototype TPV system uses a rapid mix distributed fuel delivery system with controlled feeding of the fuel and heated air into a flame at the surface of the emitter. This makes it possible to operate at air preheat temperatures well above the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel thereby substantially increasing the system efficiency. The system has been operated with air preheat temperatures up to 1367 K and has produced a uniform narrow band radiation over the surface of the emitter with this approach. The design of the system is described and test data for the system and some of the key components are presented. The results from a system model, which show the impact of various parameters on system performance, are also discussed.

Shukla, Kailash↗
DOE OSTI2022

Energy Management Information Systems Cybersecurity Best Practices

Energy management information systems (EMIS) are a broad and rapidly evolving family of tools that monitor, analyze, and control building energy use and system performance. Critical systems are often integrated with or operate on the same networks as EMIS scope systems, necessitating stable, continuous, and secure communication. When connecting EMIS to building automation and utility control systems, there are also many physical assets that could cause harm to the building and its occupants if a malicious act or human error were introduced. It is imperative to ensure all EMIS scope systems are connected securely to the EMIS and do not open vulnerable pathways to other facility networks and operations. The Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) promotes best practices for impactful utilization of EMIS at federal facilities. This best practice document is part of a series of fact sheets created to help accelerate the market adoption and use of EMIS in the federal sector. It provides an overview of required EMIS cybersecurity standards for compliance and authority to operate along with additional recommendations.

cybersecurity↗
DOE OSTI2024

Simulations of stand-off runaway electron beam termination by tungsten particulates for tokamak disruption mitigation

Abstract Stand-off runaway electron termination by injected tungsten particulates offers a plausible option in the toolbox of disruption mitigation. Tungsten is an attractive material choice for this application due to large electron stopping power and high melting point. To assess the feasibility of this scheme, we simulate runaway collisions with tungsten particulates using the MCNP program for incident runaway energies ranging from 1 to 10 MeV. We assess runaway termination from energetics and collisional kinematics perspectives. Energetically, the simulations show that 99% of runaway beam energy is removed by tungsten particulates on a timescale of 4–9 µ s. Kinematically, the simulations show that 99% of runaways are terminated by absorption or backscattering on a timescale of 3–4 µ s. By either metric, the runaway beam is effectively terminated before the onset of particulate melting. Furthermore, the simulations show that secondary radiation emission by tungsten particulates does not significantly impact the runaway termination efficacy of this scheme. Secondary radiation is emitted at lower particle energies than the incident runaways and with a broad angular distribution such that the majority of secondary electrons emitted will not experience efficient runaway re-acceleration. Overall, the stand-off runaway termination scheme is a promising concept as a last line of defense against runaway damage in ITER, SPARC, and other future burning-plasma tokamaks.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

2022 Annual Site Environmental Report for Sandia National Laboratories, Kaua'i Test Facility, Hawai'i

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the. U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Sandia Field Office administers the contract and oversees contractor operations at the Sandia National Laboratories Kaua'i Test Facility in Hawai'i. Activities at the site are conducted in support of U.S. Department of Energy weapons programs., and the site has operated as a rocket preparation launching and tracking facility since 1962. The U.S. Department of Energy and its management and operating contractor are committed to safeguarding the environment, assessing sustainability practices, and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this annual site environmental report. This report summarizes the environmental protection, restoration, and monitoring programs in place at Sandia National Laboratories, Kaua'i Test Facility, during calendar year 2022. Environmental topics include cultural resource management, chemical management, air quality, meteorology, ecology, oil storage, site sustainability, terrestrial surveillance, waste management, water quality, wastewater discharge, and implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act. This report is prepared in accordance with and as required by DOE O 231.1B, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety and Health Reporting and has been approved for public distribution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

2023 Annual Site Environmental Report for Sandia National Laboratories, Tonopah Test Range, Nevada

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Sandia Field Office administers the contract and oversees contractor operations at Sandia National Laboratories, Tonopah Test Range. Activities at the site are conducted in support of U.S. Department of Energy weapons programs and have operated at the site since 1957. The U.S. Department of Energy and its management and operating contractor are committed to safeguarding the environment, assessing sustainability practices, and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this annual site environmental report. This report summarizes the environmental protection, restoration, and monitoring programs in place at Sandia National Laboratories, Tonopah Test Range during calendar year 2023. Environmental topics include cultural resource management, chemical management, air quality, ecology, environmental restoration, oil storage, site sustainability, terrestrial surveillance, waste management, water quality, wastewater discharge, and implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act. This report is prepared in accordance with and as required by DOE O 231.1B, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety and Health Reporting, and has been approved for public distribution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

2023 Annual Site Environmental Report for Sandia National Laboratories, Kaua‘i Test Facility, Hawai‘i

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Sandia Field Office administers the contract and oversees contractor operations at the Sandia National Laboratories Kaua‘i Test Facility in Hawai‘i. Activities at the site are conducted in support of U.S. Department of Energy weapons programs, and the site has operated as a rocket preparation launching and tracking facility since 1962. The U.S. Department of Energy and its management and operating contractor are committed to safeguarding the environment, assessing sustainability practices, and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this annual site environmental report. This report summarizes the environmental protection, restoration, and monitoring programs in place at Sandia National Laboratories, Kaua‘i Test Facility, during calendar year 2023. Environmental topics include cultural resource management, chemical management, air quality, meteorology, ecology, oil storage, site sustainability, terrestrial surveillance, waste management, water quality, wastewater discharge, and implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act. This report is prepared in accordance with and as required by DOE O 231.1B, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety and Health Reporting, and has been approved for public distribution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1993

The giant impact produced a precipitated Moon

The author's current simulations of Giant Impacts on the protoearth show the development of large hot rock vapor atmospheres. The Balbus-Hawley mechanism will pump mass and angular momentum outwards in the equatorial plane; upon cooling and expansion the rock vapor will condense refractory material beyond the Roche distance, where it is available for lunar formation. During the last seven years, the author together with several colleagues has carried out a series of numerical investigations of the Giant Impact theory for the origin of the Moon. These involved three-dimensional simulations of the impact and its aftermath using Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), in which the matter in the system is divided into discrete particles whose motions and internal energies are determined as a result of the imposed initial conditions. Densities and pressures are determined from the combined overlaps of the particles, which have a bell-shaped density distribution characterized by a smoothing length. In the original series of runs all particle masses and smoothing lengths had the same values; the matter in the colliding bodies consisted of initial iron cores and rock (dunite) mantles. Each of 41 runs used 3,008 particles, took several weeks of continuous computation, and gave fairly good representations of the ultimate state of the post-collision body or bodies but at best crude and qualitative information about individual particles in orbit. During the last two years an improved SPH program was used in which the masses and smoothing lengths of the particles are variable, and the intent of the current series of computations is to investigate the behavior of the matter exterior to the main parts of the body or bodies subsequent to the collisions. These runs are taking times comparable to a year of continuous computation in each case; they use 10,000 particles with 5,000 particles in the target and 5,000 in the impactor, and the particles thus have variable masses and smoothing lengths (the latter are dynamically adjusted so that a particle typically overlaps a few tens of its neighbors). Since the matter in the impactor provides the majority of the mass left in orbit after the collision, and since the masses of the particles that originated in the impactor are smaller than those in the target, the mass resolution in the exterior parts of the problem is greatly improved and the exterior particles properly simulate atmospheres in hydrostatic equilibrium.

Cameron, A. G. W.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Overall Traveling-Wave-Tube Efficiency Improved By Optimized Multistage Depressed Collector Design

Depressed Collector Design The microwave traveling wave tube (TWT) is used widely for space communications and high-power airborne transmitting sources. One of the most important features in designing a TWT is overall efficiency. Yet, overall TWT efficiency is strongly dependent on the efficiency of the electron beam collector, particularly for high values of collector efficiency. For these reasons, the NASA Glenn Research Center developed an optimization algorithm based on simulated annealing to quickly design highly efficient multistage depressed collectors (MDC's). Simulated annealing is a strategy for solving highly nonlinear combinatorial optimization problems. Its major advantage over other methods is its ability to avoid becoming trapped in local minima. Simulated annealing is based on an analogy to statistical thermodynamics, specifically the physical process of annealing: heating a material to a temperature that permits many atomic rearrangements and then cooling it carefully and slowly, until it freezes into a strong, minimum-energy crystalline structure. This minimum energy crystal corresponds to the optimal solution of a mathematical optimization problem. The TWT used as a baseline for optimization was the 32-GHz, 10-W, helical TWT developed for the Cassini mission to Saturn. The method of collector analysis and design used was a 2-1/2-dimensional computational procedure that employs two types of codes, a large signal analysis code and an electron trajectory code. The large signal analysis code produces the spatial, energetic, and temporal distributions of the spent beam entering the MDC. An electron trajectory code uses the resultant data to perform the actual collector analysis. The MDC was optimized for maximum MDC efficiency and minimum final kinetic energy of all collected electrons (to reduce heat transfer). The preceding figure shows the geometric and electrical configuration of an optimized collector with an efficiency of 93.8 percent. The results show the improvement in collector efficiency from 89.7 to 93.8 percent, resulting in an increase of three overall efficiency points. In addition, the time to design a highly efficient MDC was reduced from a month to a few days. All work was done in-house at Glenn for the High Rate Data Delivery Program. Future plans include optimizing the MDC and TWT interaction circuit in tandem to further improve overall TWT efficiency.

Vaden, Karl R.↗
NASA NTRS2022

Environmental Testing of the OVEN System for Lunar Water Extraction and Prospecting

Introduction: The presence of water ice in permanently shadowed regions on the lunar surface [1] may enable a sustained human presence on the Moon with minimal need for consumables. However, in order to develop a long term utilization plan that includes the usage of in-situ water we must first understand the abundance, stratigraphy and distribution of this re-source. Multiple space agencies currently have plans for lunar water prospecting missions. The Optimized Volatile Extraction Node (OVEN) was designed for water prospecting missions that require samples to be weighed, sealed, and heated as the means of determining water concentration. This method of water quantification necessitates a fair amount of automation, so a rigorous environmental test program was performed in order to build confidence in the performance of the OVEN design. The work presented here describes the OVEN environmental test program as well as ongoing efforts to improve on the design. Vibration: The OVEN participated in two rounds of random vibration tests. The first test was a stand-alone test performed at the Energy Systems Test Area of the Johnson Space Center. The second test was an integrated test with the mobile platform developed for the Resource Prospector project. The OVEN survived both tests without damage, but the tests did provide valuable lessons learned with regards to specific operations. Thermal Vacuum: The OVEN was successfully demonstrated at a temperature range of -50 to 75 C in a thermal vacuum chamber. The need to heat motor gearboxes at lower temperatures was predetermined so this test program was completed by implementing a method of gearbox heating that used the existing circuitry within the motors. Dust: A custom dynamometer was built in order to determine the torque required to move the various mechanisms within the OVEN at a range of temperatures. The OVEN system was coated with lunar dust simulant in order to determine mechanism torques under a worst-case operating condition. Sublimation: Sublimation losses within the OVEN were quantified through a series of test configurations, including an integrated test in a thermal vacuum chamber at Glenn Research Center [2]. Current Work: The OVEN subsystem is currently not a component of any existing prospecting missions, but work continues that will take the lessons learned from previous environmental tests and improve on the design in order to be considered for future prospecting opportunities. References: [1] Colaprete, A., Schultz, P., Heldmann, J., Wooden, D., Shirley, M., Ennico, K., ... & Sollitt, L. (2010). Detection of water in the LCROSS ejecta plume. science, 330(6003), 463-468. [2] Kleinhenz, J., Smith, J., Roush, T., Colaprete, A., Zacny, K., Paulsen, G., ... & Paz, A. (2018). Volatiles Loss from water bearing regolith simulant at Lunar Environments. In Earth and Space 2018: Engineering for Extreme Environments (pp. 454-466). Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.

A Paz↗
DOE OSTI2020

Scalable Transmission Expansion Under Uncertainty Using Three-Stage Stochastic Optimization

The intermittent nature of renewable energy poses new challenges for power grids due to its variable and uncertain power output. These features of renewable generation are becoming more relevant to transmission planning as grids reach higher penetration levels of renewable energy. In this paper we present an approach for transmission planning based on scalable computational approaches which enable the explicit consideration of operational uncertainties in the planning process. Using three-stage stochastic programming and the progressive hedging algorithm, we compute transmission expansion decisions on a modified RTS-GMLC test system. We augment the grid with large amounts of wind generation and consider many operational scenarios subject to wind uncertainty.

multi-stage stochastic optimization↗
DOE OSTI2019

2018 Annual Site Environmental Report Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the United States Department of Energy (DOE) National Nuclear Security Administration. The National Nuclear Security Administration's Sandia Field Office administers the contract and oversees contractor operations at Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico. Activities at the site support research and development programs with a wide variety of national security missions, resulting in technologies for nonproliferation, homeland security, energy and infrastructure, and defense systems and assessments. DOE and its management and operating contractor for Sandia are committed to safeguarding the environment reassessing sustainability practices and ensuring the validity and accuracy of the monitoring data presented in this Annual Site Environmental Report. This report summarizes the environmental protection and monitoring programs in place at Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico, during calendar year 2018. Environmental topics include air quality, ecology, environmental restoration, oil storage, site sustainability, terrestrial surveillance, waste management, water quality, and implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act. This report is prepared in accordance with and as required by DOE O 231.1B, Admin Change 1, Environment, Safety, and Health Reporting and has been approved for public distribution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Hydrogen Wide Area Monitoring of LH2 Releases at HSE for the PRESHLY Project

The characterization of liquid hydrogen (LH2) releases has been identified as an international research priority to expand the safe use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Empirical field measurements such as those afforded by Hydrogen Wide Area Monitoring (HyWAM) can elucidate the behavior of LH2 releases, which can then be used to support and validate dispersion models. HyWAM can be defined as the quantitative three-dimensional spatial and temporal profiling of planned or unintentional hydrogen releases. The NREL Sensor Laboratory developed a HyWAM based upon a distributed array of hydrogen Sensors. The NREL Sensor Laboratory and Health and Safety Executive (HSE) formally committed to collaborate on profiling GH2 and LH2 releases, which allowed for the integration of the NREL HyWAM into the HSE LH2 release behavior investigation supported by the FCH JU Prenormative Research for the Safe Use of Liquid Hydrogen (PRESLHY) program. A HyWAM system consisting of 32 hydrogen measurement points and co-located temperature sensors were distributed downstream of the LH2 release apparatus developed by HSE. In addition, there were proximal wind and weather monitors. In a separate presentation at this conference "HSE SD Experimental Summary for the Characterisation, Dispersion and Electrostatic Hazards of LH2 for the PRESLHY Project" HSE researchers summarize the experimental apparatus and experimental protocols utilized in the HSE LH2 releases that were performed under the auspices of PRESLHY. To supplement the HSE presentation, this presentation will focus on the spatial and temporal behavior LH2 releases as measured by the NREL HyWAM. Correlations to ambient conditions, such as wind speed and direction, plume temperature and hydrogen concentrations will be discussed in addition to the design and performance of the NREL HyWAM, and its potential for improving hydrogen facility safety.

HYDROGEN↗