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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Performance Assessment of a Photonic Radiative Cooling System for Office Buildings

Spectrally selective materials show high technical potential for use as radiative cooling heat exchangers for buildings. Recent work by Stanford University has applied a photonic approach to tailor the optical properties of a coating material. In a prototype test, a radiative cooler based on that photonic material has demonstrated the ability to maintain radiator surfaces at below-ambient temperatures in the presence of intense, direct sunlight. This paper presents the simulation and parametric analysis of photonic radiative cooling system that integrates the use of the photonic radiative cooler and radiant floor cooling via the whole energy simulation program EnergyPlus. The simulation was made for a medium office building with three floors and a total floor area of 5,000 m2. Three key design parameters including the storage tank size, the radiator area, and the number of floors are expected to have a large impact on system performance were investigated in this paper. The results show that the percentage of cooling electricity savings from the photonic radiative cooling system relative to a reference variable-air-volume system has a linear relationship with the radiator area, and a quadratic correlation with both tank size and the number of floors. The findings from this parametric analysis are valuable to understand how component sizing affects system performance.

Wang, Weimin↗
DOE OSTI2019

Implementation of Research and Development (R and D) Results in the Design of Liner System for the Near Surface Disposal Facility (NSDF) - 19089

Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL) proposes to develop a Near Surface Disposal Facility (NSDF) at the Chalk River Laboratories (CRL) site in Ontario, Canada for disposal of CNL's Low Level Radioactive Waste (LLW) and other suitable wastes meeting the Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC). The NSDF's Engineered Containment Mound (ECM) includes base liner and final cover systems. These liner systems are designed to perform effectively for a total of 550 years. The specified geomembrane in the NSDF detailed design is 2 mm thick High Density Polyethylene Geomembrane (HDPE GMB) double sided textured and white surface. CNL's approach to collaborate with Subject Matter Expert (SME) consultants and contractors, a Canadian university, and industry has enabled the NSDF to incorporate current best design practices, particularly for the design of the ECM's liner systems. This paper describes the HDPE GMB testing program and how the results of the state-of-the-art research have been utilized in the design of the NSDF's liner system and in selection of the best candidate materials to strengthen the confidence that the required service-life will be met. The testing program includes index properties and long-term performance evaluation tests of the five candidate HDPE GMBs using leachate simulant comparable to expected NSDF leachate and an index simulant used for testing many GMBs. The results of the tests are used as the basis to assess expected HDPE GMBs long-term performance. The expected long-term performance is applied as the key consideration for the final selection of the HDPE GMB in the NSDF project. Preliminary results of the testing program indicate that an expected service-life of 550 years will likely be met by the candidate HDPE GMB. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2016

The boss emission-line lens survey. III. Strong lensing of Lyα emitters by individual galaxies

We introduce the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) Emission-Line Lens Survey GALaxy-Lyα EmitteR sYstems (BELLS GALLERY) Survey, which is a Hubble Space Telescope program to image a sample of galaxy-scale strong gravitational lens candidate systems with high-redshift Lyα emitters (LAEs) as the background sources. The goal of the BELLS GALLERY Survey is to illuminate dark substructures in galaxy-scale halos by exploiting the small-scale clumpiness of rest-frame far-UV emission in lensed LAEs, and to thereby constrain the slope and normalization of the substructure-mass function. In this paper, we describe in detail the spectroscopic strong-lens selection technique, which is based on methods adopted in the previous Sloan Lens ACS (SLACS) Survey, BELLS, and SLACS for the Masses Survey. We present the BELLS GALLERY sample of the 21 highest-quality galaxy–LAE candidates selected from ≈1.4×10{sup 6} galaxy spectra in the BOSS of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey III. These systems consist of massive galaxies at redshifts of approximately 0.5 strongly lensing LAEs at redshifts from 2–3. The compact nature of LAEs makes them an ideal probe of dark substructures, with a substructure-mass sensitivity that is unprecedented in other optical strong-lens samples. The magnification effect from lensing will also reveal the structure of LAEs below 100 pc scales, providing a detailed look at the sites of the most concentrated unobscured star formation in the universe. The source code used for candidate selection is available for download as a part of this release.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Techniques for Achieving High Reliability Operation of the Spallation Neutron Source High Power Radio-Frequency System

The Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) high power radiofrequency (HPRF) system operates with high reliability to support the goals of the SNS user program. In recent operational periods the availability of the HPRF system has exceeded 97 percent while the neutron source availability overall is typically greater than 90 percent. SNS has a unique set of 92 HPRF stations that operate at either 402.5 MHz or 805 MHz with peak output power ranging from 550 kW to 5 MW and average power ranging from 49.5 kW to 450 kW. The HPRF transmitters consist of chassis-mounted power supplies, solid-state amplifiers and other equipment that support the operation of the klystrons that ultimately provide the RF power to the accelerating structures. Management of the operation and maintenance of the HPRF system has increasingly focused on reliability and sustainability in recent years. Techniques for klystron lifetime preservation and optimization of transmitter reliability have been developed and will be described.

Moss, John↗
DOE OSTI2020

PINE: Photonic Integrated Networked Energy efficient datacenters

We review the motivation, goals, and achievements of the Photonic Integrated Networked Energy efficient datacenter (PINE) project, which is part of the Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E) ENergy-efficient Light-wave Integrated Technology Enabling Networks that Enhance Dataprocessing (ENLITENED) program. Here, the PINE program leverages the unique features of photonic technologies to enable alternative mega-datacenters and high-performance computing (HPC) system architectures that deliver more substantial energy efficiency improvements than can be achieved through link energy efficiency alone. In phase 1 of the program, the PINE system architecture demonstrated an average factor of 2.2× improvement in transactions/joule across a diverse set of HPC and datacenter applications. In phase 2, PINE will demonstrate an aggressive 1.0 pJ/bit total link budget with high-bandwidth-density dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) links to enable additional 2.5× or more efficiency gains through deep resource disaggregation.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2018

Understanding Radionuclide Interactions with Cementitious Materials for Radioactive Waste Management - 18298

In the UK, ILW is currently managed using cementitious encapsulation in Portland cement (PC)-based grouts. The long-term behaviour of radionuclides in ILW cementitious waste-forms under varying local conditions of extended interim storage and geological disposal is not well understood and the behaviour of cement minerals in the retention of various radionuclides is poorly constrained. This work focuses on the Ca-Si-[Al,Mg,S] mineral system and how this may evolve with the introduction of radionuclides into the system. Here, we discuss the experimental program aimed at underpinning the uptake and retention mechanisms of a range of key radionuclides (U, Tc, Ce/Pu), with selected cement phases: calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), hydrotalcite (Mg{sub 6}Al{sub 2}CO{sub 3}(OH)16.4H{sub 2}O) and ettringite (Ca{sub 6}(Al{sub 2}O{sub 6})(SO{sub 4}){sub 3}.32H{sub 2}O). Described here is the syntheses of C-S-H and radionuclide incorporation experiments performed on this phase. Further to this, thermodynamic geochemical modelling has been adopted to explore the Ca-Si-U mineral system, aimed at identifying the mineral phases likely to form on contact of C-S-H phases with aqueous uranium, as a function of pH. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2025

Rooftop solar and energy storage programs can remediate energy-limiting behaviors of energy insecure households in the United States

Energy insecurity, or the inability to afford energy needs, affects most low-income households in the United States and leads to risky choices and additional insecurities including food and health. Although there are government programs designed to provide relief from energy insecurity, eligibility is usually determined by household income, and those with incomes close to the threshold face uncertainty or may be left out. In many cases, these households turn to energy-limiting behaviors as a strategy to lower their electric utility bills. Here we explore the relationship between energy insecurity and energy-limiting behaviors and investigate alternative solutions such as energy storage and rooftop solar. This analysis demonstrates that solar and energy storage can offset two-thirds of the bill savings that households could attain through severe energy-limiting behavior. These systems could complement existing energy assistance programs to provide long-term bill relief, enabling occupants to live in their homes with comfort and dignity.

Kerby, Jessica R. [Pacific Northwest National Labo↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electrochemical Denitration and Caustic Generation (EDCGe) System: Year One Project Report

An advanced electrochemical denitration and caustic generation (EDCGe) system is being developed to process legacy waste through the direct feed high-level waste (DFHLW) flowsheet at Hanford. This system aims to destroy nitrates and organics in DFHLW and potentially DFHLAW feeds, significantly reducing off-gas concerns from both process safety and process flowsheet perspectives. Supported by a multidisciplinary team, this effort includes creating a tandem denitration electrolyzer/off-gas system as part of a broader mission to accelerate waste treatment through fundamental and applied research and development initiatives. The progress for the first year of the three-year program to develop technology for the EDCGe system is described within this document.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Transportation and Systems Analysis Collaborations in Support of a Federal Consolidated Interim Storage Facility

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Integrated Waste Management (IWM) program under the Office of Nuclear Energy is planning for the future transportation, storage, and eventual disposal of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and high-level radioactive waste (HLW) from nuclear power plant sites across the United States. To better enable informed decision-making regarding the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle, the IWM program has been sponsoring the development and application of system analysis tools capable of analyzing various options for managing SNF and HLW. With these tools, integrated waste management system (IWMS) architecture analyses are being conducted to support the future deployment of a comprehensive nuclear waste management system that considers all major back-end aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle (i.e., transportation, storage, and disposal). System analyses and assessments typically use these modeling and simulation tools to investigate implications of changes in various assumptions and parameters such as acceptance rates, receipt logic, facility capacities and capabilities, use of standardized canisters, start and stop dates of facilities, etc. The Next Generation System Analysis Model (NGSAM) is an agent-based simulation toolkit that is used for a system-level simulation and analysis focused on SNF management in the United States. An analyst using NGSAM has the ability to define several factors like the number of storage facilities, capacity at each facility, transportation schedules, shipment rates, and other conditions. NGSAM’s primary purpose is to provide a system analyst with capabilities to model the IWMS and gain insights into SNF and HLW management alternatives including the impact of system choices, associated cost estimates, and development of integrated yet flexible approaches. IWM is also developing the Stakeholder Tool for Assessing Radioactive Transportation (START). START is a web-based geospatial tool developed to provide visualization and initial evaluation of transportation options associated with future SNF and HLW shipment planning and operations. This includes characterizing safety, economic, and environmental conditions on and in proximity to shipment origins as well as along prospective transportation routes. Information from the START tool can be presented/shared as maps, graphics, geospatial files, and tabular form to enable easy data representation and export functionality. The system analysis, NGSAM, and START teams had been working closely for several years before formalizing this collaboration. START provides the SNF routing information for use in NGSAM. System analysts use the NGSAM tool to generate results (schedule, costs, infrastructure acquisitions, shipment rates, etc.). Subject-matter experts and system analysts work together to inform how NGSAM should model the waste management system. Specifically, this paper discusses the collaborations between the system analysis, NGSAM, and START teams and their accomplishments over the past year. Some examples of these efforts include calibrating and adding data to the START output files to meet NGSAM needs, gaining a better understanding of START data used in NGSAM, as well as how updates in START data could result in an improved NGSAM analysis. Detailed examples of various tasks that have been performed by the team will be discussed in the full paper. Continued efforts in this direction are expected in the coming years.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Transportation and System Analysis Collaborations in Support of a Federal Consolidated Interim Storage Facility

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Integrated Waste Management (IWM) program under the Office of Nuclear Energy is planning for the future transportation, storage, and eventual disposal of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and high-level radioactive waste (HLW) from nuclear power plant and waste custodian sites across the United States. To better enable informed decision-making regarding the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle, the IWM program has been sponsoring the development and application of system analysis tools capable of analyzing various options for managing SNF and HLW. With these tools, integrated waste management system (IWMS) architecture analyses are being conducted to support the future deployment of a comprehensive nuclear waste management system that considers all major back-end aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle (i.e., transportation, storage, and disposal). System analyses and assessments typically use these modeling and simulation tools to investigate implications of changes in various assumptions and parameters such as acceptance rates, receipt logic, facility capacities and capabilities, use of standardized canisters, start and stop dates of facilities, etc. The Next Generation System Analysis Model (NGSAM) is an agent-based simulation toolkit that is used for a system-level simulation and analysis focused on SNF management in the United States. NGSAM’s primary purpose is to provide a system analyst with capabilities to model the IWMS and gain insights into SNF and HLW management alternatives including the impact of system choices, associated cost estimates, and development of integrated yet flexible approaches. An analyst using NGSAM can define several factors like the number of storage facilities, capacity at each facility, transportation schedules, shipment rates, and other conditions. IWM is also developing the Stakeholder Tool for Assessing Radioactive Transportation (START). START is a web-based geospatial tool developed to provide the visualization and initial evaluation of transportation options associated with future SNF and HLW shipment planning and operations. This includes characterizing safety, economic, and environmental conditions at and in proximity to shipment origins as well as along prospective transportation routes. Information from the START tool can be presented/shared as maps, graphics, geospatial files, and tabular form to enable easy data representation and export functionality. The system analysis, NGSAM, and START teams have been working closely for several years before formalizing this collaboration. START provides the SNF transportation routing information for use in NGSAM. System analysts use the NGSAM tool to generate results (schedule, costs, infrastructure acquisitions, shipment rates, etc.). Subject-matter experts and system analysts work together to inform how NGSAM should model the waste management system. Specifically, this paper discusses the collaborations between the system analysis, NGSAM, and START teams and their accomplishments over the past year. Some examples of these efforts include calibrating and adding data to the START output files to meet NGSAM needs, gaining a better understanding of START data used in NGSAM as well as how updates in START data could result in an improved NGSAM analysis. Detailed examples of various tasks that have been performed by the team will be discussed in the full paper. Continued efforts in this direction are expected in the coming years.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

ESnet-JLab FPGA Accelerated Transport (data plane) [EJFAT (udplb)] v1.0

The ESnet-JLab FPGA Accelerated Transport system is a solution for streaming high-speed scientific measurement data from Data Acquisition Systems (DAQs) to high-performance computing facilties. It is generally compatible with many science workflows, and makes no assumptions about the specifics of any particular experiment. This program (udplb) implements the data plane portion of the EJFAT system. It is an FPGA design that rewrites and forwards data packets from a UDP-based scientific workflow to high-performance compute nodes. It depends on another program (udplbd, disclosed separately) to implement the control system.

Bengough, Peter [Malleable Networks, Inc.]↗
DOE OSTI2015

TU-F-CAMPUS-I-05: Semi-Automated, Open Source MRI Quality Assurance and Quality Control Program for Multi-Unit Institution

Purpose: Phantom measurements allow for the performance of magnetic resonance (MR) systems to be evaluated. Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) Report No. 100 Acceptance Testing and Quality Assurance Procedures for MR Imaging Facilities, American College of Radiology (ACR) MR Accreditation Program MR phantom testing, and ACR MRI quality control (QC) program documents help to outline specific tests for establishing system performance baselines as well as system stability over time. Analyzing and processing tests from multiple systems can be time-consuming for medical physicists. Besides determining whether tests are within predetermined limits or criteria, monitoring longitudinal trends can also help prevent costly downtime of systems during clinical operation. In this work, a semi-automated QC program was developed to analyze and record measurements in a database that allowed for easy access to historical data. Methods: Image analysis was performed on 27 different MR systems of 1.5T and 3.0T field strengths from GE and Siemens manufacturers. Recommended measurements involved the ACR MRI Accreditation Phantom, spherical homogenous phantoms, and a phantom with an uniform hole pattern. Measurements assessed geometric accuracy and linearity, position accuracy, image uniformity, signal, noise, ghosting, transmit gain, center frequency, and magnetic field drift. The program was designed with open source tools, employing Linux, Apache, MySQL database and Python programming language for the front and backend. Results: Processing time for each image is <2 seconds. Figures are produced to show regions of interests (ROIs) for analysis. Historical data can be reviewed to compare previous year data and to inspect for trends. Conclusion: A MRI quality assurance and QC program is necessary for maintaining high quality, ACR MRI Accredited MR programs. A reviewable database of phantom measurements assists medical physicists with processing and monitoring of large datasets. Longitudinal data can reveal trends that although are within passing criteria indicate underlying system issues.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Planning and Analyses Performed to Install Halden’s Advanced Control Room Concept in the Human Systems Simulation Laboratory

The United States (U.S.) Department of Energy (DOE) sponsors the Light Water Reactor Sustainability (LWRS) Program, which has the goal of sustaining U.S. nuclear assets through conducting high-quality, value-added research and development (R&D) that provides the technical bases to extend the operating life of commercial NPPs. One area in the LWRS program is the Plant Modernization pathway, which includes human factors R&D, human factors engineering (HFE), and ergonomics, conducts targeted R&D to address aging and reliability concerns with the legacy instrumentation and control (I&C) and related information systems in NPPs. LWRS program researchers have been conducting R&D that enables the modernization of the I&C technologies in NPP main control rooms and have authored numerous reports on those research activities. Interestingly, however, virtually all of the control room modernization activities that have been researched in collaboration with various U.S. utility partners has been on upgrades that are the first steps to position these legacy control rooms for further full nuclear plant modernization. So, while many nuclear utility owners and operators have taken the first steps toward the digitalization of the control room I&C, LWRS program researchers are not aware of what any utility’s end-state vision is for full control room modernization. Thus, the purpose of this LWRS R&D activity is to start developing an advanced control room interface concept for legacy NPPs and to demonstrate it in the Human Systems Simulation Laboratory (HSSL) at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) so that utility partners can see what a potential end state is for their control room upgrade activities. The end state shows what a fully modernized control room looks like and how it works, and is the result of HFE and I&C work to transition the existing control room and its concept of operations to a new advanced control room configuration. This report documents the planning and analyses performed to install an advanced control room concept in the HSSL. Future LWRS reports will document the process to set up the HSSL and the gPWR with the HSI developed in Halden, and then document how LWRS program researchers at INL and Halden are supporting the capability to conduct future studies by creating additional HSIs that support control room modernization.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Jacobian-based model diagnostics and application to equation oriented modeling of a carbon capture system

It can be difficult to identify the specific variables or equations responsible for convergence issues in large mathematical programming models. The Institute for the Design of Advanced Energy Systems Integrated Platform (IDAES-IP) contains a tool to identify poorly scaled constraints and variables by searching for rows and columns of the Jacobian matrix with small L2-norms. A singular value decomposition is then performed to identify degenerate sets of equations and remaining scaling issues. Here, this work presents a flowsheet developed for post-combustion carbon capture using a monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent system as a case study. This work takes the reader through the entire process of model diagnostics and reformulation, from a basic introduction to the mathematics behind these model diagnostics to the reformulations necessary to make the model numerically robust, including a significantly modified enhancement factor model.

IDAES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Unforeseen Events Alter Stewardship Strategies at the Decommissioned BONUS Reactor in Puerto Rico - 19572

The decommissioned Boiling Nuclear Superheater (BONUS) reactor northwest of Rincon, Puerto Rico, was developed as a prototype nuclear power plant to investigate the feasibility of the integral boiling superheating concept. Through a combined effort of the US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and the Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority (PRWRA), the reactor first achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction in 1964 and remained operational until June 1968. It was the eighth nuclear reactor constructed in the world and one of only two boiling-water superheater reactors ever developed in the United States. Following its decommissioning in 1970, AEC, the predecessor to the US Department of Energy (DOE), and PRWRA, the predecessor to the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA), worked together post-closure to address the remaining residual contamination and safely open the facility to the public for science educational outreach. Presently, the DOE Office of Legacy Management (LM) has long-term stewardship responsibilities for the reactor entombment, which includes periodic site inspections of the entombment system and oversight of the Radiological Protection Program (RPP) implemented by PREPA. PREPA has responsibility for conducting radiological measurements in accordance with the approved RPP for the facility, recordkeeping and reporting, and facility control and maintenance. The entombment system has a design life of 140 years; DOE has an obligation to ensure long-term protectiveness at the site for the next 90 years until the contact dose of the entombment system reaches background conditions. As part of the long-term protectiveness strategy, in September 2000, the BONUS reactor facility was renamed the Dr. Modesto Iriarte Technology Museum, and then in 2007, the facility was listed under the National Register of Historical Places. The museum contains numerous displays that recount the history of the BONUS site, as well as the development of electric power and nuclear energy, and receives approximately 100 visitor requests each year. The best long-term strategies need to be flexible and are subject to change. As such, the long-term maintenance responsibilities at the BONUS reactor facility were formerly documented in the 2010 Letter of Agreement between LM and PREPA to reaffirm the joint commitment of long-term protectiveness. This commitment did not waiver despite two devastating hurricanes in 2017, Irma and Maria, and the recent bankruptcy filing by the territory of Puerto Rico. To address the financial uncertainties facing PREPA, secure LM's commitment to long-term stewardship liabilities in the future, and offer a level of care similar to that at other LM sites, LM has offered several strategic opportunities to ensure the long-term sustainability of the site. Both LM and PREPA share a common and long-term stewardship commitment at the BONUS reactor facility, which includes ensuring protectiveness of the entombed radiological waste material. Protection of human health and the environment is at the forefront of the DOE mission, and the beneficial reuse of legacy sites continues to be a goal of the agency. The collaborative ability of both organizations to transform a Cold War-era facility such as a former nuclear reactor to an educational center embodies a unique ability to present local history while educating future generations on LM's mission to protect human health and the environment across the 92 sites it manages. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Tackling the Giants: Applying Smart Labs Principles to Constant Air Volume Lab Buildings

Laboratories typically consume 3 to 10 times more energy than similarly sized commercial buildings, and as much as 50% of that energy is wasted by inefficient and poorly operating fume hoods and ventilation systems. One challenge faced by older laboratory buildings is the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems serving many of these buildings. The older systems are usually constant air volume (CAV) systems that maintain constant ventilation rates that cause excess airflow and inefficient energy use. Variable air volume systems can be more efficient systems with sensors to detect the need for a change in volumetric flow rate; however; renovation of ventilation systems can create disruption to ongoing research and operations along with considerable up-front costs. When a Smart Labs program is implemented, an organization has a systems-based management approach that yields a high-performing laboratory building. As decarbonization continues as a priority for sites, buildings with CAV systems are difficult to address. This work centers around practical guidance for improving lab buildings with CAV. In conjunction with industry input on top technology solutions and best practices, recommendations will include performing a laboratory ventilation risk assessment in conjunction with robust retro-commissioning work, which is a crucial step in the Smart Lab process. By applying Smart Labs principles, the aging laboratory building stock of 153,343 (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory [LBNL] 2017), comprising roughly 500,000 lab spaces in the United States, can be brought to safe and high-performance operations.

building↗
DOE OSTI2015

Everything under the Sun: A review of solar neutrinos

Solar neutrinos offer a unique opportunity to study the interaction of neutrinos with matter, a sensitive search for potential new physics effects, and a probe of solar structure and solar system formation. This paper describes the broad physics program addressed by solar neutrino studies, presents the current suite of experiments programs, and describes several potential future detectors that could address the open questions in this field. This paper is a summary of a talk presented at the Neutrino 2014 conference in Boston.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗