Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “LOADING RATE”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 127 records · Page 7
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Comparative Analysis of HEATNETS for Geothermal Network Performance: Preprint

Thermal energy networks (TENs), also known as 5th generation district energy systems, or more specifically geothermal networks when exchanging heat with geothermal boreholes, are an important technology for decarbonization. In these networks an ambient loop connects buildings and thermal sources, such as a borehole field, to exchange energy and maintain a desired loop temperature. Water-source heat pumps are used at the buildings to connect to the ambient or thermal loop to meet to the building heating and cooling loads and maintain comfort. A semi-transient, reduced-order technical model and techno-economic model, called HEATNETS, has been developed at NREL that captures the flow of energy around a TEN. In this work, a comparison of the HEATNETS technical model and a well-known coding platform used for modeling geothermal networks, TRNSYS, has been completed for a proposed geothermal network as a verification process. Hourly data provided from the TRNSYS simulation included building loads, pumping power, heat pump power, temperature entering and leaving the borehole field, and mass flow rates. The hourly borehole temperatures were used to create a linear regression model utilized in HEATNETS to estimate the borehole field heat exchange. The building loads and mass flow rates were direct inputs to HEATNETS while the pumping power, heat pump power, borehole temperatures, and coefficients of performance were all simulated and calculated by HEATNETS, allowing for direct comparison of the thermal energy transfer, rather than also comparing control systems responses. HEATNETS considers the full process from design inputs to economic outputs and can provide modeling options for high-level initial system design and operational optimization. This study shows that HEATNETS, while not intended to replace other modeling tools, can be a unique modeling tool for the performance of a full geothermal network system.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

3D printing of architected sulfur cathodes with dual-site atomic catalysts for accelerated polysulfide kinetics and Li-ion transport in high areal-loading lithium–sulfur batteries

The practical deployment of lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs) is hindered by fundamental limitations in conventional slurry-cast cathodes, including poor sulfur utilization, sluggish ion transport, and low areal capacity, particularly in thick electrodes required for high energy density. To address these challenges, we present direct ink writing (DIW) as an additive manufacturing strategy to fabricate advanced current-collector-free, 3D-printed sulfur cathodes (3DP S@CoNi-DSACs/NC) with hierarchically porous architectures that enhance lithium-ion diffusion, promote electrolyte penetration, and reduce interfacial resistance. The synergistic effects of Co/Ni dual-atom sites accelerate redox kinetics and mitigate polysulfide shuttling. As a result, the optimized 3DP cathode with a sulfur loading of 5.4 mg cm −2 demonstrated excellent rate capability, delivering a high reversible capacity of 1041.4 mAh g −1 at 1C with 85.5% capacity retention after 1000 cycles, significantly outperforming its cast counterpart. Remarkably, even at a higher sulfur loading of 8.1 mg cm −2 , the 3DP cathode maintains outstanding performance, achieving a discharge capacity of 1538.4 mAh g −1 and an areal capacity of 12.5 mAh cm −2 at 0.1C. This study not only demonstrates the functional integration of catalytically active materials into 3D printable sulfur cathode architectures but also offers a scalable and transformative platform for building high-performance LSBs beyond conventional electrode manufacturing methods.

3D electrode↗
DOE OSTI2024

Off-Design Load Analysis of sCO2 Bottoming Cycle for a Natural Gas Combined Cycle Power Plant with Carbon Capture

This work starts with the optimal design from Pidaparti et. al (2024) to analyze the off-design performance of the power plant from 100% down to 50% load. The main operational findings and plant-efficiency for off-load conditions while maintaining the target CO2 capture rate are presented. The goal of the work is to determine if there is a relative advantage or disadvantage for the sCO2 bottoming cycle compared to the steam bottoming cycle in terms of reduced load efficiency performance for the NGCC with carbon capture. Results show nearly identical efficiency profiles for the two cases from 100% to 50% load.

Chinen, Anderson Soares↗
DOE OSTI2025

IM3 + EPRI Data Center Load Projections

This dataset contains scenarios of hourly total electricity demand with and without projected loads from data centers over the period 2022-2040. The root projections without data center demands are identical to those documented in Burleyson et al. 2024. In short, those projections encompass hourly electricity demands for 54 Balancing Authorities (BAs) in the United States across a range of eight of weather and socioeconomic scenarios. Refer to the root dataset and accompanying publication, Burleyson et al. 2025, for information about how those projections were generated. For this derivative dataset we used the base loads from the following scenarios: rcp45hotter_ssp3 rcp45hotter_ssp5 rcp85hotter_ssp3 rcp85hotter_ssp5 The root load projections did not reflect the drastic expansion of data centers that has occurred in the last several years to support artificial intelligence and cloud computing. To reflect growth in data center demand, a second set of load projections were created in which we layered in additional data center load projections based on the data center load growth scenarios described in a 2024 report by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI): "Powering Intelligence: Analyzing Artificial Intelligence and Data Center Energy Consumption". The EPRI projections from the report are included in this dataset (EPRI_2024_Projections.xlsx). That report contained annual state-level data center load projections for four year-over-year growth rates for data center demands: Low (3.71% annual growth) Moderate (5% annual growth) High (10% annual growth) Higher (15% annual growth) To homogenize the load projections with and without data centers we had to get them to a common scale. The first step was to take the EPRI annual state-level data center energy consumption values and convert them to 8760-hr loads for each year. We did that by assuming a flat (e.g., not weather- or time-sensitive) load profile and distributing the data center loads in each state evenly across all hours in a year. From there the loads were downscaled from the state-level to the county-level using 2019 county-level populations as weights. Finally, the county-level hourly data center loads were summed to the BA-level using the county-to-BA mapping underpinning the root load projections. The net result is 16 (4 weather and socioeconomic scenarios crossed with 4 data center load growth scenarios) unique load projections for the period 2022-2040. The file format follows that of the root dataset with a single additional column "Scaled_TELL_BA_Load_with_DC_MWh" that contains the hourly loads with the added data center loads for a given BA-year-scenario combination. Please refer to the readme file in the root dataset for more information on the file format.

Burleyson, Casey [Pacific Northwest National Labor↗
DOE OSTI2025

Recrystallization driven softening and heating rate dependencies of FeCrAl nuclear fuel cladding during accident transients

A refined understanding of FeCrAl cladding behavior during rapid transients is critical for its potential deployment in light-water reactors. Current assessments focus on transient burst testing metrics such as balloon geometry, burst temperature, and hoop stress, often used as proxies for simpler conventional tensile properties. However, directly correlating isothermal tensile and creep data with accident transient scenarios remains a challenge, although it is essential for high fidelity model development. Recent modeling based on tensile tests up to 800 °C, conducted with both immediate loading and a 10-minute soak, showed that immediate loading better predicts experimental burst temperatures, indicating a thermal softening effect. Building upon this observation, the current study connects transient performance, microstructural evolution, and high-temperature tensile properties by leveraging results from C26M claddings burst tests performed at heating rates of 1–50 °C/s and hoop stresses from 25 to 100 MPa. At 25 MPa, rupture temperatures varied by only 6 °C, but at 100 MPa, the difference reached 116 °C, with faster heating yielding higher burst temperatures. Microstructural analysis identified recrystallization as the primary cause of heating rate-dependent softening, eliminating prior cold-working. In-situ thermomechanical data linked ballooning onset to localized instabilities, similar to ultimate tensile strength behavior in conventional tensile tests. High heating rates correlated with immediate loading tensile data, while lower rates matched soaked data. Furthermore, by linking burst performance to microstructural evolution and tensile properties, this work provides a foundation for more accurate modeling of FeCrAl claddings and potentially other Fe-based materials under accident conditions.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Operando neutron imaging-guided gradient design of Li-ion solid conductor for high-mass-loading cathodes

High-mass-loading cathodes are crucial for achieving high energy density in all-solid-state batteries from the lab scale to industry. However, as mass-loading increases, electrochemical performance is significantly compromised due to sluggish kinetics. In this work, operando neutron imaging is deployed on a high-mass-loading NMC 811 cathode of 33 mg/cm 2 (5.0 mAh/cm 2 ) and directly visualizes the lithiation prioritization of the cathode active material (CAM) from the solid electrolyte membrane side to the current collector side. In addition to the tortuosity, another key limitation on ion transfer in the cathode arises from the mismatch between the uniform distribution of the solid electrolyte (catholyte) in the conventional composite cathode and the non-uniform Li + flux generated by the faradaic reaction of CAMs. Therefore, we engineer a gradient in the catholyte concentration to match the Li + flux distribution as a means of eliminating the ion transfer obstacle. This approach demonstrates enhanced rate performance, even with high-mass-loading cathodes. A LiCoO 2 composite cathode with 100 mg/cm 2 high-mass-loading exhibits an areal capacity of 10.4 mAh/cm 2 at a current density of 2.25 mA/cm 2 . This work provides insight into the ion-transport limitation in thick cathodes and demonstrates an effective gradient design to overcome the kinetic barrier and achieve high battery performance.

Batteries↗
DOE OSTI2025

An approach for spent nuclear fuel containment integrity verification using gas tagging

Verification of containment integrity is required for spent nuclear fuel (SNF) managed by the commercial nuclear industry and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), especially after extended storage. Certain SNF storage systems, such as the DOE road-ready dry storage system, hold several packaged containments within a welded over-canister. These packaged containments are called Department of Energy Standard Canisters (DOESCs). DOESC leakage identification is challenging because their containment boundary cannot be accessed for testing and their contents (i.e., SNF and fill gas) are often similar. There are concerns that this could result in costly characterization and repackaging operations of DOE road-ready dry storage systems if compromised DOESCs are suspected. Here, to address these concerns, this paper presents an approach for applying a gas tagging process using xenon to uniquely identify compromised inaccessible containments following extended storage. The containments considered for this application are seven DOESCs, each packaged within a single over-canister. Two different SNF loading configurations from the Advanced Test Reactor and Fort Saint Vrain nuclear power plant are considered. These configurations are used to represent research reactor aluminum-clad spent nuclear fuel (ASNF) and TRi-structural ISOtropic (TRISO) SNF types. Results for this application show that for ASNF and TRISO type fuels for which the selected fuels are representative, the volume of taggant required at loading is determined primarily by the lower detection limit and leak rate of taggant from a compromised DOESC, rather than the amount of fission-generated xenon in the loaded fuel. While the application presented is suited for larger leaks, smaller leaks could be detected by modifying certain design parameters. This gas tagging approach can also be applied to other DOE containments and advanced reactor SNF storage systems.

07 - ISOTOPES AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Instantaneous mesh load factor ( K γ ) measurements in a wind turbine gearbox using fiber-optic strain sensors

The mesh load factor, K γ , describes how loads are shared between planet gears and has become one of the key design challenges in modern wind turbine gearboxes. Planet load sharing directly impacts tooth root stresses, a critical driver of torque density and gearbox reliability. Experimental evaluation of K γ is typically performed from sun gear tooth root strain gauge measurements, which are complex. Furthermore, such measurements can only provide an average value of load sharing. The present study describes an alternative method to evaluate the mesh load factor in wind turbine gearboxes based on fiber-optic strain sensors installed on the outer surface of the fixed ring gear. We present the results of an extensive measurement campaign to evaluate this novel sensing solution installed on the input planetary stage of a 2-MW wind turbine gearbox at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Flatirons Campus (Colorado, USA). The number of strain sensors on the ring gear was selected as an integer multiple of the number of planets, which has enabled an instantaneous evaluation of the mesh load factor. The effect of operating conditions on the planet load-sharing behavior of the gearbox has been investigated. The mesh load factor measured for operating conditions close to rated was below 1.05, well below IEC 61400-4 standard requirements.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Biopolymer-supramolecular polymer hybrids for photocatalytic hydrogen production

Solar generation of H 2 is a promising strategy for dense energy storage. Supramolecular polymers composed of chromophore amphiphile monomers containing perylene monoimide (PMI) have been reported as crystalline light-harvesting assemblies for aqueous H 2 -evolving catalysts. Gelation of these supramolecular polymers with multivalent ions creates hydrogels with high diffusivity but insufficient mechanical stability and catalyst retention for reusability. We report here on using sodium alginate (SA) biopolymer to both induce supramolecular polymerization of PMI and co-immobilize them with catalysts in a robust hydrogel with high diffusivity that can also be 3D-printed. Faster mass transfer was achieved by controlling the material macrostructure by reducing gel diameter and microstructure by reducing biopolymer loading. Optimized gels produce H 2 at rates rivaling solution-based PMI and generate H 2 for up to 6 days. The PMI assemblies in the SA matrix create a percolation network capable of bulk-electron transfer under illumination. These PMI–SA materials were then 3D-printed on conductive substrates to create 3D hydrogel photoelectrodes with optimized porosity. The design of these versatile hybrid materials was bioinspired by the soft matter environment of natural photosynthetic systems and opens the opportunity to carry out light-to-fuel conversion within soft matter with arbitrary shapes and particular local environments.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Value of Nuclear Energy to the Reliability of the North American Power System: Results for Western and Eastern Interconnections

This report documents the fulfillment of a milestone for the United States (U.S.) Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program: completing a baseline study of regional impact of nuclear power plants and hydrogen production in maintaining grid services and power quality. Models have been comprehensively demonstrated for the Western Interconnection, or Western Electric Coordinating Council area, and in the Eastern Interconnection for scenarios representative of past extreme events (e.g., drought and heat waves). Understanding the impact on the reliability of the bulk electric system of any reduction in generation capacity from nuclear power, for any reason, is the motivation of this work. Factors that might lead to the premature or unplanned closure of nuclear plants, extended outages, or repurposing of nuclear power include: • Aging infrastructure: Many nuclear power plants in the U.S. are nearing the end of their designed operating lives. Upgrading aging infrastructure can be expensive, and some utilities may choose to retire plants rather than invest in costly upgrades. • Low wholesale electricity prices: The deregulation of the electricity market in many states has led to increased competition and driven down wholesale electricity prices, causing nuclear power operators to seek other revenue sources for their heat and power such as clean hydrogen production. • Renewables growth: The rapid growth of renewable energy sources like solar and wind power is posing a challenge to traditional generation sources like nuclear. While many see renewables as a key part of the clean energy transition, their intermittent nature requires additional grid solutions for reliable power supply. • The potential for regulatory decisions to be in conflict: In its 2021 rulemaking, EPA rule (86 FR 880), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set a compliance date for the ban on processing and distribution in commerce of Decabromodiphenyl Ether (DecaBDE). Since DecaBDE is in many components, particularly wiring, of nuclear power plants which are deemed safety-related or important to safety, three plants would not have been able to restart after their 2023 spring outages, and numerous others would have faced issues in the near future. Fortunately, in this case, the EPA provided relief to the nuclear energy industry. The report provides a summary of the significant role nuclear energy plays in the United States’ power generation mix, supplying around 20% of the nation’s electricity generation, spread across 28 U.S. states. Nuclear power is reliable, mostly unaffected by weather and seasonal changes, and provides a consistent source of baseload power. In terms of capacity, nuclear power plants account for as much as 26% of balancing area power generation capacity. Nuclear power also provides a substantial contribution (e.g., 10% of the inertia in the Eastern Interconnection) of the synchronous spinning mass/inertia that buffers the rate at which frequency changes when a load and generation imbalance occurs (e.g., a large plant trips or a load is suddenly shed due to a transmission outage). This contribution is critical for maintaining grid stability during sudden changes in load or generation.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dynamic compression effects of H 2 ⁡O in a dynamic diamond anvil cell: Origin of metastable ice VII and its crystal growth kinetics

We report on the structural verification of metastable ice VII solidifying in the phase space of ice VI at 1.80 GPa at room temperature. Using time-resolved (TR) x-ray diffraction and TR ruby luminescence paired with high-speed microphotography utilizing a dynamic diamond anvil cell, an initial compression rate range from 0.12 to 95.84 GPa/s was explored. The solidification pressure of metastable ice VII has a potential sigmoidal dependence upon compression rate with a turnover compression rate of ∼80 GPa/s. The preferred crystallization of ice VII in the stability field of ice VI is due to the increased nucleation rate of ice VII over ice VI at 1.77 GPa that is driven by the surface energy difference between the liquid and solid phases along with the change in Gibbs free energy of solidification. The dynamic pressure-volume–compression behaviors of ice phases (VI and VII) show a lattice stiffening in both phases, especially during the compression loading. It is also found that the compression rate greatly affects the solid-solid phase transition between ice VI and VII but does not affect the liquid-solid transition between water and ice VI as much. Lastly, a third phase transition was found to occur after metastable ice VII transforms into high-density amorphous (HDA) ice, which could be a disordered hydrogen-bonded network configuration of ice VII forming out of HDA ice facilitated by the decoupling of the oxygen movement and reorientation of the H 2⁡ O molecule. These results demonstrate the complexity of a seemingly simple molecule H 2⁡ O, how it can readily change its static properties with the modification of (de)compression rate, and highlight the need to use multiple TR structural and spectroscopic probes at higher time resolutions to realize the most comprehensive understanding.

Chemical bonding↗
DOE OSTI2026

Design trade-offs for residential retail tariffs and virtual power plants

Retail rate design and virtual power plants (VPPs) have the potential to shift customer electricity demand and provide economic benefits to utility customers. As the adoption of distributed energy resources (DERs) and flexible loads increases, retail tariff and program design can impact Bonbright's rate design principles including affordability, fairness, and economic efficiency. We model the effects of residential retail rates and VPP programs on power system costs in Massachusetts under a potential future system with high renewable energy and DER adoption. We model interactions among retail rate design, demand flexibility, and utility costs and identify trade-offs across different rate designs and VPP programs. We estimate that time-of-use (TOU) rates and VPP programs designed to avoid critical peak rates can lower overall system costs by 3.5 %-4.8 %. These lower costs translate to lower electricity bills for 62 %-91 % of customers, depending on the scenario. Although TOU rates with a critical peak VPP program can benefit all customer segments and are economically efficient, a VPP program with flat rates leads to the lowest overall bills for customers. We find that customers with loads that align with peak demand and who participate in critical peak VPP programs can underpay for their contribution to utility costs and shift costs to other customers. While our assumptions about mandatory TOU and/or critical peak pricing likely impact the magnitude of the results, the results highlight the trade-offs of these tariffs and programs and the importance of tariff and program design as demand becomes more flexible and responsive.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2026

A finite viscoelastic constitutive model for low to high strain rate response of elastomers with application of strain rate-induced glass transition

Amorphous elastomers exhibit significant rate-stiffening and unique viscous flow characteristics across a wide range of strain rates, often undergoing glass transition above a strain rate threshold. We have developed a thermodynamically-consistent and micromechanically-inspired constitutive model for soft elastomeric materials to capture the rate-dependent stress-strain behavior and hysteresis when subjected to low to high strain rates. Here, our proposed constitutive model encapsulates the viscous flow of materials through molecular motion at low strain rates and local rearrangement and alignment of the molecules trying to overcome the intermolecular resistance at high strain rates, essentially covering the glass transition. We applied our constitutive model to uniaxial compression experiments performed at low and high strain rates for polyborosiloxane (PBS) to identify the material parameters, and subsequently, performed numerical simulations of single and multi-cycle compression, stress relaxation, and small amplitude oscillatory tension-compression. Our analyses indicate that the model predicts higher total energy dissipation with increasing strain rate; however, dissipation associated with molecular relaxation decreases (forming a cusp) because, beyond a crossover strain rate, intermolecular rearrangement and alignment become dominant, which is consistent with the onset of the glass transition. For cyclic loading-unloading, we observed that dissipation over a cycle remains constant at low strain rates but decreases non-monotonically at high strain rates before becoming constant, with the peak stress over the cycle becoming higher, which can be interpreted as more loading being carried elastically by the polymer network as the intermolecular rearrangement process occurs. Additionally, our model was able to predict the qualitative nature of the storage modulus and loss modulus in the limit of small strain over a wide range of frequency sweeps.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Novel insight into the kinetics of amide bond glycolysis for nylon-6 depolymerization

Chemical recycling of nylon-6 to short-chain oligomers and monomer ε-caprolactam via catalytic glycolysis is a potential solution for plastic waste remediation. Here, in this work, the kinetics of amide bond glycolysis (with ethylene glycol) in nylon-6 and the model compound N-phenethyl-3-phenylpropanamide (M1) were evaluated at 473 K in the presence of the cyclic amidine catalyst 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene. Rates of polymer glycolysis were determined by the time-dependent shift in molecular weight distribution, whereas rates of M1 glycolysis were determined using liquid chromatography. The similarity of the first-order rate constants for glycolysis of nylon-6 and M1 at 473 K with 0.03 M amidine catalyst (5 mol% relative to amide bonds), 1.22 × 10 −5 s −1 and 2.18 × 10 −5 s −1 , respectively, confirmed the suitability of M1 as a model compound for nylon-6 glycolysis. Similar rates of glycolysis in the presence of other cyclic amidine catalysts as well as sodium methoxide revealed little influence of base strength. Glycolysis rates were unexpectedly non-linear in catalyst loading and deactivation occurred with long reaction times, presumably by non-selective decomposition of products as detected by liquid chromatography.

Depolymerization rate and rate constant↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thermal loading effects on chalk hydromechanical behavior for nuclear waste disposal

Safe disposal of heat-generating nuclear waste depends on host rock stability under thermal, hydrological, and mechanical stresses. This study investigates the effect of thermal loading on mechanical behavior of the shallowly buried Ghareb formation chalk through triaxial and hydrostatic constant strain rate and creep tests at temperatures up to 100 ˚C and effective pressures up to 20.7 MPa. Experimental results show that thermal loading reduces the elastic moduli of chalk by 50–75%, and a transition occurs above 60 ˚C where creep rates increase rapidly. Water saturation nearly doubles the thermally induced strain compared to dry conditions and strongly decreases material rigidity. Thermal loading also leads to significant pore pressure increases under undrained conditions and leads to reductions in the apparent permeability during drained conditions. Laboratory experimental data were used to parameterize and develop a preliminary constitutive model for predicting future deformation during repository operations in the Ghareb. The strongly coupled effects – mechanical weakening, fluid pressure fluctuations, and permeability modification – demonstrate that elevated repository temperatures will have a pronounced effect on the near field Ghareb behavior during waste disposal operations. The findings indicate that the coupled interactions must be considered in predictive models and repository design to ensure long-term nuclear waste isolation and safety.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Understanding the Origin of Negative Temperature Dependence and Activity of N-Coordinated Cobalt Sites During Ethylene Dimerization

The on-demand production of short-chain linear alpha olefins (LAOs; C4-C8) via C2H4 dimerization and oligomerization is industrially attractive, prompting extensive research on designing active, selective, and stable catalysts for industrial use. Cobalt supported on ammoniated carbon (Co(NH3)x/C) catalysts have shown remarkable activity and selectivity in this process. However, critical aspects such as the active phase, active site structure, the role of the catalyst support, cobalt loading effects, and the inverse correlation of the reaction rate with temperature remain inadequately understood. This study systematically explores these factors using a combination of steady-state differential catalytic tests, in situ molecular characterization including diffuse reflectance UV-Vis (DR-UV-Vis), Infrared, and Raman spectroscopies, and ex situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high annular aberration-corrected dark field transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM). Various supports (SiO2, Al2O3, NH4-ZSM-5, g-C3N4, and C) and cobalt loadings (1.0-3.0 Co nm-2) were studied to determine the optimal catalyst composition and identify the active phase and sites. Carbon-supported catalysts uniquely produce C4-8 LAOs during C2H4 dimerization, with site-time-yield remaining constant (~10-3 s-1) for 1.0-4.0 Co nm-2 at prolonged reaction times (24-48?h time-on-stream). At higher loadings of 6.0 Co nm-2, the formation of crystalline CoO and Co3O4 phases reduces catalytic activity and LAO selectivity. Our findings show that active catalysts lack crystalline cobalt oxides and instead feature dispersed Co2+ sites, tetra-coordinated to a mix of N/NH3 and O/H2O ligands, which catalyze C2H4 dimerization via the Cossee-Arlman mechanism, exhibiting 1st order dependence on C2H4 concentration. The observed inverse rate-temperature correlation is attributed to compensation effects (i.e., presence of Cremer-Constable relationship) linked to changes in adsorption enthalpic and entropic factors.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Nuclear microreactor transient and load-following control with deep reinforcement learning

The economic feasibility of nuclear microreactors will depend on minimizing operating costs through advancements in autonomous control, especially when these microreactors are operating alongside other types of energy systems (e.g., renewable energy). This study explores the application of deep reinforcement learning (RL) for real-time drum control in microreactors, exploring performance in regard to load-following scenarios. By leveraging a point kinetics model with thermal and xenon feedback, we first establish a baseline using a single-output RL agent, then compare it against a traditional proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller. This study demonstrates that RL controllers, including both single- and multi-agent RL (MARL) frameworks, can achieve similar or even superior load-following performance as traditional PID control across a range of load-following scenarios. In short transients, the RL agent was able to reduce the tracking error rate in comparison to PID by one half to one third. Over extended 300-minute load-following scenarios in which xenon feedback becomes a dominant factor, PID maintained better accuracy, but RL still remained within a 1% error margin despite being trained only on short-duration scenarios. This highlights RL’s strong ability to generalize and extrapolate to longer, more complex transients, affording substantial reductions in training costs and reduced overfitting. Furthermore, when control was extended to multiple drums, MARL enabled independent drum control as well as maintained reactor symmetry constraints without sacrificing performance---an objective that standard single-agent RL could not learn. We also found that, as increasing levels of Gaussian noise were added to the power measurements, the RL controllers were able to maintain lower error rates than PID, and to do so with at least 10% and upwards of 150% less control effort. These findings illustrate RL's potential for autonomous nuclear reactor control, laying the groundwork for future integration into high-fidelity simulations and experimental validation efforts.

22 - GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effect of cellulose reducing ends and primary hydroxyl groups modifications on cellulose-cellulase interactions and cellulose hydrolysis

Cellulose reducing ends are believed to play a vital role in the cellulose recalcitrance to enzymatic conversion. However, their role in insoluble cellulose accessibility and hydrolysis is not clear. Thus, in this study, reducing ends of insoluble cellulose derived from various sources were modified by applying reducing and/or oxidizing agents. Here, the effects of cellulose reducing ends modification on cellulose reducing ends, cellulose structure, and cellulose accessibility to cellulase were evaluated along with the impact on cellulose hydrolysis with complete as well purified cellulase components. Sodium borohydride (NaBH 4 ) reduction and sodium chlorite-acetic acid (SC/AA) oxidation were able to modify more than 90% and 60% of the reducing ends, respectively, while the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) reagent applied for various cycles oxidized cellulose reducing ends to various extents. X-ray diffractograms of the treated solids showed that these treatments did not change the cellulose crystalline structure and the change in crystallinity index was insignificant. Surprisingly, it was found that the cellulose reducing ends modification, either through selective NaBH 4 reduction or BCA oxidation, had a negligible impact on cellulose accessibility as well on cellulose hydrolysis rates or final conversions with complete cellulase at loadings as low as 0.5 mg protein/g cellulose. In fact, in contrast to what is traditionally believed, modifications of cellulose reducing ends by these two methods had no apparent impact on cellulose conversion with purified cellulase components and their synergy. However, SC/AA oxidation resulted in significant drop in cellulose conversion (10%–50%) with complete as well purified cellulase components. Nonetheless, further research revealed that the cause for drop in cellulose conversion for the SC/AA oxidation case was due to primary hydroxyl groups (PHGs) oxidation and not the oxidation of reducing ends. Furthermore, it was found that the PHGs modification affects cellulose accessibility and slows the cellulase uptake as well resulting in significant drop in cellulose conversions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗