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NASA NTRS2016

International Space Exploration Coordination Group Assessment of Technology Gaps for LOx/Methane Propulsion Systems for the Global Exploration Roadmap

As part of the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER), the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) formed two technology gap assessment teams to evaluate topic discipline areas that had not been worked at an international level to date. The participating agencies were ASI, CNES, DLR, ESA, JAXA, and NASA. Accordingly, the ISECG Technology Working Group (TWG) recommended two discipline areas based on Critical Technology Needs reflected within the GER Technology Development Map (GTDM): Dust Mitigation and LOX/Methane Propulsion. LOx/Methane propulsion systems are enabling for future human missions Mars by significantly reducing the landed mass of the Mars ascent stage through the use of in-situ propellant production, for improving common fluids for life support, power and propulion thus allowing for diverse redundancy, for eliminating the corrosive and toxic propellants thereby improving surface operations and resusabilty, and for inceasing the performance of propulsion systems. The goals and objectives of the international team are to determine the gaps in technology that must be closed for LOx/Methane to be used in human exploration missions in cis-lunar, lunar, and Mars mission applications. An emphasis is placed on near term lunar lander applications with extensibility to Mars. Each agency provided a status of the substantial amount of Lox/Methane propulsion system development to date and their inputs on the gaps in the technology that are remaining. The gaps, which are now opportunities for collaboration, are then discussed.

Hurlbert, Eric A.↗

NASA NTRS2017

The Lightweight Integrated Solar Array and anTenna (LISA-T) Big Power for Small Spacecraft

NASA is developing a space power system using lightweight, flexible photovoltaic devices originally developed for use here on Earth to provide low cost power for spacecraft. The Lightweight Integrated Solar Array and anTenna (LISA-T) is a launch stowed, orbit deployed array on which thin-film photovoltaic and antenna elements are embedded. The LISA-T system is deployable, building upon NASA's expertise in developing thin-film deployable solar sails such the one being developed for the Near Earth Asteroid Scout project which will fly in 2018. One of the biggest challenges for the NEA Scout, and most other spacecraft, is power. There simply isn't enough of it available, thus limiting the range of operation of the spacecraft from the Sun (due to the small surface area available for using solar cells), the range of operation from the Earth (low available power with inherently small antenna sizes tightly constrain the bandwidth for communication), and the science (you can only power so many instruments with limited power). The LISA-T has the potential to mitigate each of these limitations, especially for small spacecraft. Inherently, small satellites are limited in surface area, volume, and mass allocation; driving competition between their need for power and robust communications with the requirements of the science or engineering payload they are developed to fly. LISA-T is addressing this issue, deploying large-area arrays from a reduced volume and mass envelope - greatly enhancing power generation and communications capabilities of small spacecraft and CubeSats. The problem is that these CubeSats can usually only generate between 7W and 50W of power. The power that can be generated by the LISA-T ranges from tens of watts to several hundred watts, at a much higher mass and stowage efficiency. A matrix of options are in development, including planar (pointed) and omnidirectional (non-pointed) arrays. The former is seeking the highest performance possible while the latter is seeking GN&C simplicity. Options for leveraging both high performance, 'typical cost' triple junction thin-film solar cells as well as moderate performance, low cost cells are being developed. Alongside, UHF (ultrahigh frequency), S-band, and X-band antennas are being integrated into the array to move their space claim away from the spacecraft and open the door for more capable multi-element antenna designs such as those needed for spherical coverage and electronically steered phase arrays.

Space Exploration↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Engineering Polymers as Structural Materials in Spacecraft Water Systems

The novel application of structural materials, surface treatments, and barrier coatings is desired to mitigate the rapid loss of ionic silver (Ag+) biocide observed with passive metal alloys, improve reliability, and reduce system mass. In this work, we provide an initial look at the potential replacement of these heritage alloys in spacecraft water systems with high-performance thermoplastic engineering polymers, including PEEK, PEI, and PVDF. Such materials have found increasing use as structural materials in a broad array of performance-critical applications, including in the aerospace, medical implant, and chemical processing fields. We selected a number of promising materials for investigation, compiled mechanical behavior data, and conducted theoretical performance analyses. We also identified and began to address numerous material suitability concerns as well as design requirements for pressurized components in human-rated spacecraft hardware. These include material flammability, offgassing, leaching, chemical resistance, radiation tolerance, prevention of fracture/yielding, and others. We find that there is significant potential for use of engineering polymers in spacecraft water systems, and suggest some directions for future research.

Lance Dean Delzeit↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Improving Modeled Snow Mass in GEOS with Snow Cover Fraction Assimilation

The NASA Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS) Forward Processing (FP) global weather analysis often considerably underestimates near-surface air temperature during the spring snow melt season, which can be caused by excessive simulated snow cover. To mitigate such errors, we developed an empirical snow cover fraction (SCF) analysis to assimilate SCF observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) into the GEOS Catchment land surface model. Results obtained with a land-only version of the system indicate that the SCF analysis reduces errors in snow mass and snow depth by ~10% when compared to in situ measurements from the Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL), Canadian historical Snow Water Equivalent dataset (CanSWE), and Global Historical Climatology Network - Daily (GHCN-Daily) networks.

Rolf Reichle↗

NASA NTRS2011

The Use of the Integrated Medical Model for Forecasting and Mitigating Medical Risks for a Near-Earth Asteroid Mission

Introduction The Integrated Medical Model (IMM) is a decision support tool that is useful to space flight mission managers and medical system designers in assessing risks and optimizing medical systems. The IMM employs an evidence-based, probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) approach within the operational constraints of space flight. Methods Stochastic computational methods are used to forecast probability distributions of medical events, crew health metrics, medical resource utilization, and probability estimates of medical evacuation and loss of crew life. The IMM can also optimize medical kits within the constraints of mass and volume for specified missions. The IMM was used to forecast medical evacuation and loss of crew life probabilities, as well as crew health metrics for a near-earth asteroid (NEA) mission. An optimized medical kit for this mission was proposed based on the IMM simulation. Discussion The IMM can provide information to the space program regarding medical risks, including crew medical impairment, medical evacuation and loss of crew life. This information is valuable to mission managers and the space medicine community in assessing risk and developing mitigation strategies. Exploration missions such as NEA missions will have significant mass and volume constraints applied to the medical system. Appropriate allocation of medical resources will be critical to mission success. The IMM capability of optimizing medical systems based on specific crew and mission profiles will be advantageous to medical system designers. Conclusion The IMM is a decision support tool that can provide estimates of the impact of medical events on human space flight missions, such as crew impairment, evacuation, and loss of crew life. It can be used to support the development of mitigation strategies and to propose optimized medical systems for specified space flight missions. Learning Objectives The audience will learn how an evidence-based decision support tool can be used to help assess risk, develop mitigation strategies, and optimize medical systems for exploration space flight missions.

Kerstman, Eric↗

NASA NTRS2013

Operation of Direct Drive Systems: Experiments in Peak Power Tracking and Multi-Thruster Control

Direct-drive power and propulsion systems have the potential to significantly reduce the mass of high-power solar electric propulsion spacecraft, among other advantages. Recent experimental direct-drive work has significantly mitigated or retired the technical risks associated with single-thruster operation, so attention is now moving toward systems-level areas of interest. One of those areas is the use of a Hall thruster system as a peak power tracker to fully use the available power from a solar array. A simple and elegant control based on the incremental conductance method, enhanced by combining it with the unique properties of Hall thruster systems, is derived here and it is shown to track peak solar array power very well. Another area of interest is multi-thruster operation and control. Dualthruster operation was investigated in a parallel electrical configuration, with both thrusters operating from discharge power provided by a single solar array. Startup and shutdown sequences are discussed, and it is shown that multi-thruster operation and control is as simple as for a single thruster. Some system architectures require operation of multiple cathodes while they are electrically connected together. Four different methods to control the discharge current emitted by individual cathodes in this configuration are investigated, with cathode flow rate control appearing to be advantageous. Dual-parallel thruster operation with equal cathode current sharing at total powers up to 10 kW is presented.

solar electric propulsion (SEP) vehicles↗

NASA NTRS2024

Input Waste Stream Modeling for Trash Management, Recycling, and Manufacturing Processes

Astronaut waste is an important aspect of the planning and execution of long-term crewed missions, especially to the Moon and Mars. However, as new technologies arise and mission planning evolves, the projected composition of the waste similarly evolves. This poses a problem for researchers who are investigating various approaches to mitigating crew waste, since the investigation of each new waste-mitigation technology typically uses a static waste composition that is based on a simulant developed at the time of the research; several such waste simulants have been developed over recent years. To mitigate the ‘moving target’ aspect of crew waste composition and use, researchers at NASA KSC have developed a computational tool wherein researchers can adjust the composition of the crew waste, as well as other important parameters such as crew size, mission duration, and waste mitigation method (e.g., incineration, compaction, jettison, etc.). The computational tool then returns important mission metrics such as waste-related mass reduction, power consumed, water produced or consumed, elemental mass balance, and available feedstock for in-space manufacturing (ISM) applications. This tool can then be used to adjust aspects of a waste model (e.g., removal of metal aluminum (Al) for ISM applications) and determine an associated set of metrics in order to inform mission planning.

Ray Pitts↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Sea Surface Air Pressure Retrieval with MBARS

Global meteorological observations are essential in initialization and assimilation of numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. Many key weather variables such as temperature, humidity, and wind can be relatively well observed by in-situ and remote techniques from surface, suborbital and orbital platforms. However, sea surface air pressure cannot be well-sampled. Over open oceans, the pressure can only be observed by very limited buoys, ships, and oceanic platforms. There is no operational remote sensing method available for the crucial dynamic variable of the Earth’s climate and weather systems. Advanced techniques for global sea level pressure (SLP) observations are urgently needed for improving NWP models, particularly for improvement of severe weather forecasts. Recent studies on the space and airborne Microwave BArometric Radar and Sounder (MBARS) systems provide a great potential to fill the SLP observational gap. The systems studied have three channels with center frequencies at 65.5, 67.76 and 70 GHz. These channels are designed to operate at atmospheric oxygen (O2) absorption bands for column O2 mass measurements. When sea surface returns of spectrally closely-spaced paired channels are measured, surface reflection and atmospheric attenuation other than O2 are very similar, but the difference in O2 absorption is substantial. Thus, the differential absorption loss of this frequency pair leads to measures of atmospheric O2 amount. For the residual absorption loss caused by other agents, a third frequency having the same spectral space to the weak absorption frequency of the first pair can be used, which forms the second pair and produces the same residual as the first pair. Removal of the residual of this second pair from the first pair can further mitigate environmental impacts. Thus, this 3-channel approach will provide precise O2 amount retrievals. Since oxygen is well mixed in the atmosphere, the column air mass or SLP can be obtained. Currently, MBARS is rapidly maturing its advanced technology. An upcoming airborne field flight campaign is planned in late 2024. The 3-channel approach will be use in SLP retrievals. This MBARS team will discuss the physics-based SLP retrieval technique and report latest progresses in this upcoming AGU annual meeting.

O2 differential absorption↗

NASA NTRS1994

Fusion powered human transport to Mars (UWFR94)

In the future, two important technological dreams will have become reality: fusion will be a viable power source, and human settlement on Mars will be feasible, desirable, and even necessary. Merging these two concepts is especially attractive for the aerospace engineer because of the high specific power that will be possible with fusion (on the order 10 kW/kg). The UWFR94, a large, fusion-powered, human-transport ship, is designed to transport 100 passengers between earth and Mars in approximately thirty days. This relatively short transit time, which mitigates the need for artificial gravity, is made possible by a Polywell inertial electrostatic fusion reactor capable of 20 kW/kg. The mass of each reactor is 37 metric tons and the fuel used is (3)He-(3)He. The electricity generated drives the propulsion system, composed of nine ion thrusters and 780 tons of xenon propellant. The payload consists of three independent, identical cylinders housing the crew, and has a mass of approximately 400 tons. The aluminum cylinders' radius and length are 3 and 12 meters, respectively, with a thickness of 6 cm (15 cm in the solar flare safe rooms). Atmospheric reentry is avoided by constructing and repairing the UWFR94 in space, and by transferring crew and cargo to shuttle-like vehicles for transportation to the planet upon arrival.

Cappellari, John↗

NASA NTRS2004

Research and Technology Activities Supporting Closed-Brayton-Cycle Power Conversion System Development

The elements of Brayton technology development emphasize power conversion system risk mitigation. Risk mitigation is achieved by demonstrating system integration feasibility, subsystem/component life capability (particularly in the context of material creep) and overall spacecraft mass reduction. Closed-Brayton-cycle (CBC) power conversion technology is viewed as relatively mature. At the 2-kWe power level, a CBC conversion system Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of six (6) was achieved during the Solar Dynamic Ground Test Demonstration (SD-GTD) in 1998. A TRL 5 was demonstrated for 10 kWe-class CBC components during the development of the Brayton Rotating Unit (BRU) from 1968 to 1976. Components currently in terrestrial (open cycle) Brayton machines represent TRL 4 for similar uses in 100 kWe-class CBC space systems. Because of the baseline component and subsystem technology maturity, much of the Brayton technology task is focused on issues related to systems integration. A brief description of ongoing technology activities is given.

Barrett, Michael J.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Mars Atmosphere Resource Verification INsitu (MARVIN) - In Situ Resource Demonstration for the Mars 2020 Mission

The making of oxygen from resources in the Martian atmosphere, known as In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), has the potential to provide substantial benefits for future robotic and human exploration. In particular, the ability to produce oxygen on Mars for use in propulsion, life support, and power systems can provide significant mission benefits such as a reducing launch mass, lander size, and mission and crew risk. To advance ISRU for possible incorporation into future human missions to Mars, NASA proposed including an ISRU instrument on the Mars 2020 rover mission, through an announcement of opportunity (AO). The purpose of the the Mars Atmosphere Resource Verification INsitu or (MARVIN) instrument is to provide the first demonstration on Mars of oxygen production from acquired and stored Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide, as well as take measurements of atmospheric pressure and temperature, and of suspended dust particle sizes and amounts entrained in collected atmosphere gases at different times of the Mars day and year. The hardware performance and environmental data obtained will be critical for future ISRU systems that will reduce the mass of propellants and other consumables launched from Earth for robotic and human exploration, for better understanding of Mars dust and mitigation techniques to improve crew safety, and to help further define Mars global circulation models and better understand the regional atmospheric dynamics on Mars. The technologies selected for MARVIN are also scalable for future robotic sample return and human missions to Mars using ISRU.

Sanders, Gerald B.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Numerical Experiments of Counterflowiing Jet Effects on Supersonic Slender-Body Configurations

Previous studies have demonstrated that the use of counterflowing jets can greatly reduce the drag and heat loads on blunt-body geometries, especially when the long penetration mode jet condition can be established. Previously, the authors had done some preliminary numerical studies to determine the ability to establish long penetration mode jets on a typical Mach 1.6 slender configuration, and study its impact on the boom signature. The results indicated that a jet with a longer penetration length was required to achieve any impact on the boom signature of a typical Mach 1.6 slender configuration. This paper focuses on an in-depth parametric study, done using the space-time conservation element solution element Navier-Stokes flow solver, for investigating the effect of various counterflowing jet conditions/configurations on two supersonic slender-body models (cone-cylinder and quartic body of revolution). The study is aimed at gaining a better understanding of the relationship between the shock penetration length and reduction of drag and boom signature for these two supersonic slender-body configurations. Different jet flow rates, Mach numbers, nozzle jet exit diameters and jet-to-base diameter ratios were examined. The results show the characteristics of a short-to-long-to-short penetration-mode pattern with the increase of jet mass flow rates, observed across various counterflowing jet nozzle configurations. Though the optimal shock penetration length for potential boom-signature mitigation is tied to the long penetration mode, it often results in a very unsteady flow and leads to large oscillations of surface pressure and drag. Furthermore, depending on the geometry of the slender body, longer jet penetration did not always result in maximum drag reduction. For the quartic geometry, the maximum drag reduction corresponds well to the longest shock penetration length, while this was not the case for the cone-cylinder-as the geometry was already optimized for drag. Numerical results and assessments obtained from this parametric study along with the recommendation for future implementation of counterflowing jets as a means for drag and noise reduction are detailed in this paper.

Venkatachari, Balaji Shankar↗

NASA NTRS2023

Lunar Dust Mitigation: A Guide and Reference: First Edition (2021)

On the surface of the Moon, lunar dust specifically presents unique challenges to operations long-term due to regolith particles’ ubiquitous presence in the lunar environment, potential to electrostatically charge and possible chemical reactivity. Whether to avoid exposure, try to remove or simply to tolerate lunar dust infiltrating a system becomes a complex question involving length of required service life, dust effects and critical risks, mass and complexity trades for the entire system. This publication provides a snapshot of advice from topical experts for specific areas of concern to systems targeted for deployment on the lunar surface. Following introductory overview commentary, dust mitigation approaches appropriate to the lunar surface are first addressed for typically static structures such as optical surfaces, radiators, and other thermal control surfaces, followed by regolith exposure concerns for communications equipment and non-optical sensors. The broad topic of mechanisms and mechanical assemblies is broken down to address relevant component level concerns, such as for bearings and for seals. “Soft goods” components of space suits (fabric) specific concerns are discussed, followed finally by brief coverage of human health issues and concerns, though the emphasis of this publication remains with components directly exposed to the harsh lunar surface environment. A description of some lunar surface hazard details, in particular characteristics of lunar surface dust, follows in Appendix A, and more detailed explanations of quantification issues for particulates are in Appendix B. The simple inertial removal of particles from a surface is discussed in Appendix C, followed by a summary of terrestrial best practices for dust mitigation recommended within select industries in Appendix D. The aggregated bibliography of references, while extensive and very useful, should not be construed to be exhaustive and can serve as a constructive start.

dust↗

NASA NTRS2021

Insitu Lunar Launch & Landing Pad Construction w/ Regolith and Thermoset Polymers

This CIF project is an extension of materials developed under a previous NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) project titled “Regolith Derived Heat Shield for Planetary Body Entry and Descent Systems with In-Situ Fabrication” by M. Hogue et al. (2012). Launch and landing pads are necessary to mitigate risks to lander/ascent vehicles, surface assets, and orbital assets from rocket plume ejected regolith. At this time, all launching and landing on the lunar surface will be on unprepared surface sites. Though this has been a successful approach for Apollo and other uncrewed missions, significant risks exist for the Artemis Program due to the increased thrust of the vehicles, presence of co-located assets, and potential surface level requirements for tall vehicles. This project developed a thermoset polymer–regolith composite material for use as a launch and landing pad. Test articles were prepared at 20% and 11% polymer mass percent (wt%) and tested under hot fire conditions that simulated large vehicle lunar launch/landing conditions. A minimum polymer wt% of 9% was achieved and both samples successfully mitigated regolith ejecta from plume effects. A concept for emplacing launch/landing pads was successfully tested in laboratory environments using a screw and barrel approach to mixing, conveying and depositing materials. It is recommended that materials and systems be developed to TRL 6 for a small-scale lunar demonstration of emplacement of a launch/landing pad via a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) mission to support the Artemis Program.

Nathan Gelino↗

NASA NTRS2023

Sub-Continental-Scale Carbon Stocks of Individual Trees in African Drylands

The distribution of dryland trees and their density, cover, size, mass and carbon content are not well known at sub-continental to continental scales. This information is important for ecological protection, carbon accounting, climate mitigation and restoration efforts of dryland ecosystems. We assessed more than 9.9 billion trees derived from more than 300,000 satellite images, covering semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa north of the Equator. We attributed wood, foliage and root carbon to every tree in the 0–1,000 mm year −1 rainfall zone by coupling field data, machine learning, satellite data and high-performance computing. Average carbon stocks of individual trees ranged from 0.54 Mg C ha −1 and 63 kg C tree −1 in the arid zone to 3.7 Mg C ha −1 and 98 kg tree −1 in the sub-humid zone. Overall, we estimated the total carbon for our study area to be 0.84 (±19.8%) Pg C. Comparisons with 14 previous TRENDY numerical simulation studies23 for our area found that the density and carbon stocks of scattered trees have been underestimated by three models and overestimated by 11 models, respectively. This benchmarking can help understand the carbon cycle and address concerns about land degradation. We make available a linked database of wood mass, foliage mass, root mass and carbon stock of each tree for scientists, policymakers, dryland-restoration practitioners and farmers, who can use it to estimate farmland tree carbon stocks from tablets or laptops.

Compton Tucker↗

NASA NTRS2005

Expecting the Unexpected: Radiation Hardened Software

Radiation induced Single Event Effects (SEEs) are a serious problem for spacecraft flight software, potentially leading to a complete loss of mission. Conventional risk mitigation has been focused on hardware, leading to slow, expensive and outdated on-board computing devices, increased power consumption and launch mass. Our approach is to look at SEEs from a software perspective, and to explicitly design flight software so that it can detect and correct the majority of SEES. Radiation hardened flight software will reduce the significant residual residual risk for critical missions and flight phases, and enable more use of inexpensive and fast COTS hardware.

Penix, John↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

In-situ Lunar Launch and Landing Pad Construction with Regolith-Thermoset Polymer Composite Materials

Lunar launch and landing pads are necessary to mitigate risks to lander/ascent vehicles and surrounding surface assets from rocket plume ejected regolith. The current state of the art of landing and launching from the lunar surface is to land/launch on unprepared regolith surfaces. Though this has been a relatively successful approach, significant risks exist for the Artemis Program due to higher thrust levels leading to increased ejecta and cratering, presence of co-located assets in the ejecta path, and potential strict surface levelness requirements. Regolith-thermoset polymer composite materials were developed and evaluated for off Earth launch and landing pad applications. Performance under hot fire conditions was assessed for two simulated Starship lunar launch/landing environments, one targeting thermal conditions and the second targeting pressure conditions. Paver test articles were prepared at 20% and 11% polymer mass fractions. Sintered paver test articles were prepared with 20% polymer grouting filling the seams between pavers. Though significant erosion was experienced during the more extreme thermal testing conditions, all test articles successfully mitigated regolith ejecta from plume effects. A concept for preparing and emplacing the materials was developed and tested in laboratory conditions. The testing evaluated the feasibility of using twin and single screw extruder technology to mix, convey and deposit materials. Both the twin and single screw extruders were capable of processing and extruding the composite with a maximum of 90% mass fraction of regolith achieved by the twin screw extruder.A primary risk for application of regolith-thermoset polymer composites as lunar launch/landingpad is the mass of polymer required to be landed on the moon. Calculations were performed that show that a 100 m diameter, 0.025 m thick pad with polymer mass fraction of 15% will require a payload mass of 72 mt to the Lunar surface. This is below the planned Starship payload capacity to the lunar surface of 100 mt. The regolith-thermoset polymer composite based construction approach proved feasibility in three critical areas: performance under launch/landing conditions, demonstration of a mixing and depositing strategy, and fitting within the planned lunar payload capacity. It is recommended that materials and systems be developed to TRL 6 for a small-scale lunar demonstration of emplacement of a launch/landing pad via a CLPS mission to support Artemis Program roadmap gap closure activities.

ISRU↗

NASA NTRS2011

A Hypothesis on Biological Protection from Space Radiation Through the Use of New Therapeutic Gases as Medical Counter Measures

Exposure to astronauts could be a significant obstacle for long duration manned space exploration because of current uncertainties regarding the extent of biological effects. Furthermore, concepts for protective shielding also pose a technically challenging issue due to the nature of cosmic radiation and current mass and power constraints with modern exploration technology. As biological damage from exposure is associated with increased oxidative stress, it would be enabling to mitigate and/or prevent stress prior to the development of clinical symptoms and disease. This paper hypothesizes a "systems biology" approach in which a combination of chemical and biological mitigation techniques are used conjunctively. It proposes using new, therapeutic, medical gases as both chemical radioprotectors for radical scavenging and biological promoters for management of the body s response to exposure. From reviewing radiochemistry of water, biological effects of CO, H2, NO, and H2S gas, and mechanisms of radiation biology, it is concluded that this approach may have great therapeutic potential for exposure. Furthermore, it also appears to have potential for curtailing the pathogenesis of other diseases in which oxidative stress has been implicated including cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic inflammatory disease, hypertension, ischemia/reperfusion injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, Parkinson s and Alzheimer s disease, cataracts, and aging.

Schoenfeld, Michael P.↗