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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2012

Operating the Dual-Orbiter GRAIL Mission to Measure the Moon's Gravity

NASA's mission to measure the Moon's gravity and determine the interior structure, from crust to core, has almost completed its 3-month science data collection phase. The twin orbiters of the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission were launched from Florida on September 10, 2011, on a Delta-II launch vehicle. After traveling for nearly four months on a low energy trajectory to the Moon, they were inserted into lunar orbit on New Year's Eve and New Year's Day. In January 2012 a series of circularization maneuvers brought the orbiters into co-planar near-circular polar orbits. In February a distant (75- km) rendezvous was achieved and the science instruments were turned on. A dual- frequency (Ka and S-band) inter-orbiter radio link provides a precise orbiter-to-orbiter range measurement that enables the gravity field estimation. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, CA, manages the GRAIL project. Mission management, mission planning and sequencing, and navigation are conducted at JPL. Lockheed Martin, the flight system manufacturer, operates the orbiters from their control center in Denver, Colorado. The orbiters together have performed 28 propulsive maneuvers to reach and maintain the science phase configuration. Execution of these maneuvers, as well as the payload checkout and calibration activities, has gone smoothly due to extensive pre-launch operations planning and testing. The key to the operations success has been detailed timelines for product interchange between the operations teams and proven procedures from previous JPL/LM planetary missions. Once in science phase, GRAIL benefitted from the payload operational heritage of the GRACE mission that measures the Earth's gravity.

Moon missions↗
NASA NTRS2016

Gravity Field of the Orientale Basin from the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory Mission

The Orientale basin is the youngest and best-preserved major impact structure on the Moon. We used the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) spacecraft to investigate the gravitational field of Orientale at 3- to 5-kilometer (km) horizontal resolution. A volume of at least (3.4 +/- 0.2) × 10(exp 6) cu km of crustal material was removed and redistributed during basin formation. There is no preserved evidence of the transient crater that would reveal the basin's maximum volume, but its diameter may now be inferred to be between 320 and 460 km. The gravity field resolves distinctive structures of Orientale's three rings and suggests the presence of faults associated with the outer two that penetrate to the mantle. The crustal structure of Orientale provides constraints on the formation of multiring basins.

Zuber, Maria T.↗
NASA NTRS1986

Abundances of cobalt, nickel, and volatiles in the silicate portion of the moon

The trace abundances of Ni have been determined in 20 high-Mg magmas produced by partial melting of the lunar mantle. Associated with the eruption of the high-Mg magmas was the release of indigenous volatile elements. Data suggest that these volatiles were derived from primordial blocks of debris from the outer solar system that became entrained in the circumterrestrial accretion disk. The survival of these reservoirs within the lunar interior places constraints on the moon's thermal history.

Delano, John W.↗
NASA NTRS2008

The Saturn System's Icy Satellites: New Results from Cassini

Cassini-Huygens is a multidisciplinary, international planetary mission consisting of an orbiting spacecraft and a probe. The Huygens probe successfully landed on Titan's surface on January 14, 2005, while the orbiter has performed observations of Saturn, its rings, satellites, and magnetosphere since it entered orbit around Saturn on July 1, 2004. The Cassini mission has been prolific in its scientific discoveries about the Saturn system. In this special section, we present new mission results with a focus on the 'icy satellites,' which we define as all Saturn's moons with the exception of Titan. The results included in this section have come out of the Cassini SOST--Satellites Orbiter Science Team--a multi-instrument and multidiscipline group that works together to better understand the icy satellites and their interactions with Saturn and its rings. Other papers included in this issue present ground-based observations and interior modeling of these icy moons.

Cassini↗
NASA NTRS1972

Thermal history of the moon.

The thermal history of the lunar interior has been investigated for many sets of parameters and initial conditions by the construction of mathematical models. These models have been extended to include the effects of melting and redistribution of radioactive heat sources with time. The models considered include the possibility of heat transfer by lattice conduction, radiative transfer, removal of radioactive heat sources and, in a molten zone, fluid convection. The energy sources are divided into initial temperature sources that operate during the formation of the moon or shortly thereafter, and long-lived radioactive heat sources.

Reynolds, R. T.↗
NASA NTRS2021

Patched Local Lunar Gravity Solutions using GRAIL Data

We present a method to determine local gravity fields for the Moon using Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) data. We express gravity as gridded gravity anomalies on a sphere, and we estimate adjustments to a background global start model expressed in spherical harmonics. We processed GRAIL Ka-band range-rate data with a short-arc approach, using only data over the area of interest. We determine our gravity solutions using neighbor smoothing constraints. We divided the entire Moon into twelve regions and two polar caps, with a resolution of 0.15˚ x 0.15˚ (which is equivalent to degree and order 1199 in spherical harmonics), and determined the optimal smoothing parameter for each area by comparing localized correlations between gravity and topography for each solution set. Our selected areas share nodes with surrounding areas and they are overlapping. To mitigate boundary effects, we patch the solutions together by symmetrically omitting the boundary parts of overlapping solutions. Our new solution has been iterated, and it has improved correlations with topography when compared to a fully iterated global model. Our method requires fewer resources, and can easily handle regionally varying resolution or constraints. The smooth model describes small-scale features clearly, and can be used in local studies of the structure of the lunar crust.

Sander Goossens↗
NASA NTRS1972

Is the moon hot or cold.

Basic observations are discussed which do not demand a presently cold moon and are consistent with a hot moon. It is suggested that an iron-deficient, highly resistive, hot lunar interior, capped by a cool, rigid lunar lithosphere with a thickness of several hundred kilometers, can explain the relevant observations and is a reasonable model of the moon today. The strength of the moon, lunar electrical conductivity profiles, the relative absence of present-day volcanic activity, and thermal history considerations are examined. Whether the deep interior of the moon is hot or cold has an important bearing on the overall composition of the moon and its origin.

Anderson, D. L.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Global and Local Gravity Field Models of the Moon Using GRAIL Primary and Extended Mission Data

The Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission was designed to map the structure of the lunar interior from crust to core and to advance the understanding of the Moon's thermal evolution by producing a high-quality, high-resolution map of the gravitational field of the Moon. The mission consisted of two spacecraft, which were launched in September 2011 on a Discovery-class NASA mission. Ka-band tracking between the two satellites was the single science instrument, augmented by tracking from Earth using the Deep Space Network (DSN).

Moon↗
NASA NTRS1966

Scientific exploration of the moon and planets

Dynamical development of solar system, rotation of planets, and planetary interiors and magnetic fields discussed in relation to scientific exploration of moon and planets

PLANETARY EXPLORATION↗
NASA NTRS1972

The particles and fields subsatellite magnetometer experiment

It is reported that the objectives of the particles and fields subsatellite (PFS) magnetometer experiment are to calculate the interior electrical conductivity of the moon, to survey the remanent magnetization of the lunar surface, and to study the interaction of the moon with its plasma environment. The magnetometers also support the PFS particle experiment by providing onboard magnetic sectoring and a posteriori pitch angle data and plasma diagnostics.

Coleman, P. J., Jr.↗
NASA NTRS1976

Thermal expansion and thermal stress in the moon and terrestrial planets - Clues to early thermal history

The paper discusses how features of the surface geology of the moon and also Mars and Mercury impose constraints on the volumetric expansion or contraction of a planet and consequently provide a test of thermal history models. The moon has changed very little in volume over the last 3.8 b.y. Thermal models satisfying this constraint involve early heating and perhaps melting of the outer 200 km of the moon and an initially cold interior. Mercury has contracted by about 2 km in radius since emplacement of its present surface, so core formation must predate that surface. A hot initial temperature distribution is implied.

Solomon, S. C.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Lunar Power Dissipated by Tides and Core-Mantle Interaction

Analysis of Lunar Laser Ranges gives information on lunar tidal dissipation and a molten core. For the ancient moon tidal heating of the interior and heating at the core-mantle boundary could have rivaled radiogenic heating.

Williams, J. G.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Pickup Ion Mass Spectrometry for Surface Bounded Exospheres and Composition Mapping of Lunar and Planetary Surfaces

Many of the small to medium sized objects in the solar system can be characterized as having surface bounded exospheres, or atmospheres so tenuous that scale lengths for inter-particle collisions are much larger than the dimensions of the objects. The atmospheres of these objects are the product of their surfaces, both the surface composition and the interactions that occur on them and also their interiors when gases escape from there. Thus by studying surface bounded exospheres it is possible to develop insight into the composition and processes that are taking place on the surface and interiors of these objects. The Moon and Mercury are two examples of planetary bodies with surface bounded exospheres that have been studied through spectroscopic observations of sodium, potassium, and, on the moon, mass spectrometric measurements of lunar gases such as argon and helium.

Keller, J. W.↗
NASA NTRS2008

International Lunar Network (ILN) Anchor Nodes

This slide presentation reviews what we know about the interior and surface of the moon and the need to establish a robotic set of geophysical monitoring stations on the surface of the Moon for the purpose of providing significant scientific value to the exploration of the Moon. The ILN Anchor Nodes will provide the backbone of the network in a way that accomplishes new science and allows other nodes to be flexible contributors to the network.

Cohen, Barbara A.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Constraints on the Volatile Distribution Within Shackleton Crater at the Lunar South Pole

Shackleton crater is nearly coincident with the Moon's south pole. Its interior receives almost no direct sunlight and is a perennial cold trap, making Shackleton a promising candidate location in which to seek sequestered volatiles. However, previous orbital and Earth-based radar mapping and orbital optical imaging have yielded conflicting interpretations about the existence of volatiles. Here we present observations from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter on board the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, revealing Shackleton to be an ancient, unusually well-preserved simple crater whose interior walls are fresher than its floor and rim. Shackleton floor deposits are nearly the same age as the rim, suggesting that little floor deposition has occurred since the crater formed more than three billion years ago. At a wavelength of 1,064 nanometres, the floor of Shackleton is brighter than the surrounding terrain and the interiors of nearby craters, but not as bright as the interior walls. The combined observations are explicable primarily by downslope movement of regolith on the walls exposing fresher underlying material. The relatively brighter crater floor is most simply explained by decreased space weathering due to shadowing, but a one-micrometre-thick layer containing about 20 per cent surficial ice is an alternative possibility.

Zuber, Maria T.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Large Impact Basins on Mercury: Global Distribution, Characteristics, and Modification History from MESSENGER Orbital Data

The formation of large impact basins (diameter D greater than or equal to 300 km) was an important process in the early evolution of Mercury and influenced the planet's topography, stratigraphy, and crustal structure. We catalog and characterize this basin population on Mercury from global observations by the MESSENGER spacecraft, and we use the new data to evaluate basins suggested on the basis of the Mariner 10 flybys. Forty-two certain or probable impact basins are recognized a few additional basins that may have been degraded to the point of ambiguity are plausible on the basis of new data but are classified as uncertain. The spatial density of large basins (D greater than or equal to 500 km) on Mercury is lower than that on the Moon. Morphological characteristics of basins on Mercury suggest that on average they are more degraded than lunar basins. These observations are consistent with more efficient modification, degradation, and obliteration of the largest basins on Mercury than on the Moon. This distinction may be a result of differences in the basin formation process (producing fewer rings), greater relaxation of topography after basin formation (subduing relief), and/or higher rates of volcanism during the period of heavy bombardment on Mercury compared to the Moon (burying basin rings and interiors).

Fassett, Caleb I.↗
NASA NTRS2012

GRAIL Refinements to Lunar Seismic Structure

The present ]day internal structure of the Moon provides insight not only into its own formation and evolution, but also that of all rocky planetary bodies. The most direct way to probe a planet fs interior structure is through seismology. As part of the Apollo lunar missions, four seismometers were deployed on the nearside surface of the Moon between the years 1969 and 1972. These instruments operated continuously until 1977, forming the only substantial extraterrestrial seismic data set in existence. These data have been used to constrain various aspects of the seismic velocity and density structure of the Moon. Typical 1-D models recognize a 30-60 km thick crust overlying a nearly constant ]velocity mantle, and extend to a depth of approximately 1000 km, below which the lack of penetrating moonquake ray ]paths precludes the seismic determination of deeper structure. Previously, the lack of observed moonquakes from the far side of the Moon has been used to infer the presence of a highly attenuating (possibly molten) core. Indirect geophysical measurements such as moment of inertia, magnetic induction, lunar laser ranging, and elemental abundances of mare basalts also place varying constraints on core size and state. In combination with seismic studies, these indirect measurements have been used to arrive at a commonly accepted model of the Moon's deepest interior that includes a solid inner and fluid outer core, overlain by a partial melt boundary layer. We recently applied modern array seismology techniques to the Apollo data and revealed detailed core structure, including the first direct confirmation of the presence of a solid inner core. Our study focused on the identification of core ]reflected phases in deep moonquake seismograms. The resulting model of the Moon fs innermost structure was found to be consistent with the commonly accepted model. However, the modeled layer radii may vary by tens of kilometers, as is expected when accounting for uncertainties such as moonquake location, timing errors, and potential seismic heterogeneities. In addition, the modeled velocities may vary with a 1-to-1 trade ]off with the modeled reflector depth. The GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory) mission, launched in Sept. 2011, placed two nearly identical spacecraft in lunar orbit. The two satellites make extremely high-resolution measurements of the lunar gravity field, which can be used to constrain the interior structure of the Moon using a "crust to core" approach. GRAIL fs constraints on crustal thickness, mantle structure, core radius and stratification, and core state (solid vs. molten) will complement seismic investigations in several ways. Here we present a progress report on our efforts to advance our knowledge of the Moon fs internal structure using joint gravity and seismic analyses. We will focus on methodology, including 1) refinements to the seismic core constraint accomplished through array processing of Apollo seismic data, made by applying a set of travel time corrections based on GRAIL structure estimates local to each Apollo seismic station; 2) modeling deep lunar structure through synthetic seismograms, to test whether the seismic core model can reproduce the core reflections observed in the Apollo seismograms; and 3) a joint seismic and gravity inversion in which we attempt to fit a family of seismic structure models with the gravity constraints from GRAIL, resulting in maps of seismic velocities and densities that vary from a nominal model both laterally and with depth.

Weber, Renee↗