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Wind tunnel stability tests of longitudinal aerodynamic characteristics of powered four-duct propeller VTOL model in transition
Prediction and control of boundary layer transition from laminar to turbulent is important to many flow regimes and vehicle designs, including vehicles operating at hypersonic conditions where nonequilibrium effects may be encountered. Wall cooling is known to affect the instability characteristics of the boundary layer and subsequently the transition location. Design considerations, including material failure and fuel chemistry, require the use of actively cooled walls in hypersonic vehicles, further motivating the study of wall temperature effects on top of the considerations of reducing heat flux, drag, and uncertainty. In this work, we analyze the stability of a boundary layer with chemical and thermal nonequilibrium on a Mach 20, 6 wedge. We investigate the effects of wall temperature on multiple unstable modes individually and on the integrated growth of disturbances along the surface. We use the LAngley Stability and TRansition Analysis Code (LASTRAC) to evaluate boundary layer stability, using capabilities implemented by the authors. Included are results that address chemical nonequilibrium with both thermal equilibrium and nonequilibrium.
Predicting the onset of boundary-layer transition is often more accurate using physics-based models that directly compute disturbance growth rather than phenomenological models often implemented into industrial CFD codes. The aim of this ongoing study is to calibrate linear, physics-based computations of transition in subsonic flows over swept wings against a large set of experimental data. Advancing the calibration of linear models of transition contributes to the CFD-Vision-2030 goal of automated boundary-layer transition prediction. This progress report uses the dual N-factor method to model transition over the swept NACA 64-2-015A wing. The flow conditions match selected test conditions from an extensive experimental dataset acquired from the NASA Ames 12-ft Pressure Tunnel. The OVERFLOW 2.4b flow solver is used to obtain laminar basic states based on an infinite-span assumption. Stability analyses are performed on 365 distinct configurations with linear stability theory (LST) and parabolized stability equations (PSE) from the Langley Stability and Transition Analysis Codes (LASTRAC), modeling the growth of Tollmien-Schlichting (TS) and stationary crossflow (SCF) disturbances. From a total of 67 data points for unswept, i.e., TS-dominant configurations, the critical N-factor based on PSE is found to be N_TS = 9. The SCF critical N-factor is found to be near 8 for the highly swept, SCF-dominant configurations. Dual N-factor curves for both LST and PSE computations demonstrate a high level of interaction between TS and SCF. It may be worthwhile to investigate an alternate metric to visualize maximal SCF amplification upstream of the transition location to account for the growth of SCF modes near the leading edge, which is not considered in the conventional applications of the dual N-factor criterion.
During replication and transcription, the SV40 control region is subjected to significant levels of DNA unwinding. There are three, alternating purine-pyrimidine tracts within this region that can adopt the Z-DNA conformation in response to negative superhelix density: a single copy of ACACACAT and two copies of ATGCATGC. Since the control region is essential for both efficient transcription and replication, B-DNA to Z-DNA transitions in these vital sequence tracts may have significant biological consequences. We have synthesized DNA minicircles to detect B-DNA to Z-DNA transitions in the SV40 enhancer, and to determine the negative superhelix density required to stabilize the Z-DNA. A variety of DNA sequences, including the entire SV40 enhancer and the two segments of the enhancer with alternating purine-pyrimidine tracts, were incorporated into topologically relaxed minicircles. Negative supercoils were generated, and the resulting topoisomers were resolved by electrophoresis. Using an anti-Z-DNA Fab and an electrophoretic mobility shift assay, Z-DNA was detected in the enhancer-containing minicircles at a superhelix density of -0.05. Fab saturation binding experiments demonstrated that three, independent Z-DNA tracts were stabilized in the supercoiled minicircles. Two other minicircles, each with one of the two alternating purine-pyrimidine tracts, also contained single Z-DNA sites. These results confirm the identities of the Z-DNA-forming sequences within the control region. Moreover, the B-DNA to Z-DNA transitions were detected at superhelix densities observed during normal replication and transcription processes in the SV40 life cycle.
The paper deals with flight experiments as a means of obtaining proper transition information in an uncontaminated environment. Flight transition experiments performed in the early to middle 1950s using rocket-propelled vehicles are outlined. It is noted that the standards for research quality experiments on stability and transition are no different for flight studies than for wind-tunnel experiments. The guidelines formulated by the U.S. Boundary Layer Transition Study Group are listed. Attention is focused on the relationship between the model design and the measurement of disturbance environment, the maintenance and monitoring of test and model-surface conditions, and a need for high data-sampling rates.
One of the primary reasons for developing quiet tunnels is for the investigation of high-speed boundary-layer stability and transition phenomena without the transition-promoting effects of acoustic radiation from tunnel walls. In this experiment, a flared-cone model under adiabatic- and cooled-wall conditions was placed in a calibrated, 'quiet' Mach 6 flow and the stability of the boundary layer was investigated using a prototype constant-voltage anemometer. The results were compared with linear-stability theory predictions and good agreement was found in the prediction of second-mode frequencies and growth. In addition, the same 'N=10' criterion used to predict boundary-layer transition in subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flows was found to be applicable for the hypersonic flow regime as well. Under cooled-wall conditions, a unique set of continuous spectra data was acquired that documents the linear, nonlinear, and breakdown regions associated with the transition of hypersonic flow under low-noise conditions.
Low turbulence tunnel experiments on the stability and transition of 2 D boundary layers on flat plates with and without suction are described. A number of general suction cases are discussed. Test results showed that the maximum stabilization occurred when the suction was moved toward the Branch I neutral point. An analytical study of the stability of two dimensional, incompressible boundary layer flows over plates with suction through porous strips was performed. The mean flow was calculated using linearized triple deck, closed form solutions. The stability results of the triple deck theory are shown to be in good agreement with those of the interacting boundary layers. An analytical optimization scheme for the suction configuration was developd. Numerical calculations were performed corresponding to the experimental configurations. In each case, the theory correctly predicts the experimental results.
The most recent efforts on the stability and transition of three-dimensional flows are reviewed. These include flows over swept wings, rotating disks, rotating cones, yawed bodies, corners, and attachment lines. The generic similarities of their stability behavior is discussed. It is shown that the breakdown process is very complex, often leading to contradictory results. Particular attention is paid to opposing observations of stationary and traveling wave disturbances.
The ability to control the extent of laminar flow on swept wings at supersonic speeds may be a critical element in developing the enabling technology for a High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT). Laminar boundary layers are less resistive to forward flight than their turbulent counterparts, thus the farther downstream that transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the wing boundary layer is extended can be of significant economic impact. Due to the complex processes involved experimental studies of boundary layer stability and transition are needed, and these are performed in "quiet" wind tunnels capable of simulating the low-disturbance environment of free flight. At Ames, a wind tunnel has been built to operate at flow conditions which match those of the HSCT laminar flow flight demonstration 'aircraft, the F-16XL, i.e. at a Mach number of 1.6 and a Reynolds number range of 1 to 3 million per foot. This will allow detailed studies of the attachment line and crossflow on the leading edge area of the highly swept wing. Also, use of suction as a means of control of transition due to crossflow and attachment line instabilities can be studied. Topics covered include: test operating conditions required; design requirements to efficiently make use of the existing infrastructure; development of an injector drive system using a small pilot facility; plenum chamber design; use of computational tools for tunnel and model design; and early operational results.
Historical developments in the area of high-speed experimental transition research are outlined, and future directions in this area as determined by the panel membership are listed. The directions include measurement and modeling of initial disturbance fields, both in ground facilities and flight, for all modes; development of advanced high-speed instrumentation for disturbance field measurements, measurements of the details of receptivity in multitudinous flows; further development and use of high-speed quiet tunnels; stability and transition studies for multitudinous flows; detailed studies of the transitional region for boundary layers, free flows, vortices separated flows, corner flows, etc.; and studies of flow-chemistry effects on transition phenomena. Applied research such areas as the physics of perforated-surface suction stabilization and the resolution of anomalies in the existing high-speed database is also suggested.
Predicting the onset of boundary-layer transition is often more accurate using physics-based models that directly compute disturbance growth rather than phenomenological models often implemented into industrial CFD codes. The aim of this ongoing study is to calibrate linear, physics-based computations of transition in subsonic flows over swept wings against a large set of experimental data. Advancing the calibration of linear models of transition contributes to the CFD-Vision-2030 goal of automated boundary-layer transition prediction. This progress report uses the dual N-factor method to model transition over the swept NACA 64-2-015A wing. The flow conditions match selected test conditions from an extensive experimental dataset acquired from the NASA Ames 12-ft Pressure Tunnel. The OVERFLOW 2.4b flow solver is used to obtain laminar basic states based on an infinite-span assumption. Stability analyses are performed on 365 distinct configurations with linear stability theory (LST) and parabolized stability equations (PSE) from the Langley Stability and Transition Analysis Codes (LASTRAC), modeling the growth of Tollmien-Schlichting (TS) and stationary crossflow (SCF) disturbances. From a total of 67 data points for unswept, i.e., TS-dominant configurations, the critical N-factor based on PSE is found to be N_TS = 9. The SCF critical N-factor is found to be near 8 for the highly swept, SCF-dominant configurations. Dual N-factor curves for both LST and PSE computations demonstrate a high level of interaction between TS and SCF. It may be worthwhile to investigate an alternate metric to visualize maximal SCF amplification upstream of the transition location to account for the growth of SCF modes near the leading edge, which is not considered in the conventional applications of the dual N-factor criterion.
The Hybrid-Laminar Flow Control (HLFC) Crossflow Experiment, completed in 1995. generated a large database of boundary layer stability and transition data that was only partially analyzed before data analysis was abruptly ended in the late 1990's. Renewed interest in laminar flow technologies prompted additional data analysis, to integrate all data, including some post-test roughness and porosity measurements. The objective is to gain new insights into the effects of suction on boundary layer stability. A number of challenges were encountered during the data analysis, and their solutions are discussed in detail. They include the effect of the probe vibration, the effect of the time-varying surface temperature on traveling crossflow instabilities, and the effect of the stationary crossflow modes on the approximation of wall location. Despite the low turbulence intensity of the wind tunnel (0.01 to 0.02%), traveling crosflow disturbances were present in the data, in some cases at amplitudes up to 1% of the freestream velocity. However, the data suggests that transition was dominated by stationary crossflow. Traveling crossflow results and stationary data in the presence of suction are compared with linear parabolized stability equations results as a way of testing the quality of the results.
The topics of thermal anemometry and high-order spectral analyses were the subject of the technical training. Specifically, the objective of the technical training was to study: (i) the recently introduced constant voltage anemometer (CVA) for high-speed boundary layer; and (ii) newly developed high-order spectral analysis techniques (HOSA). Both CVA and HOSA are relevant tools for studies of boundary layer transition and stability.
The boundary layer stability, its active control by sound and surface heating and the effect of curvature are studied numerically and experimentally for subsonic flow. In addition, the experimental and flight test data are correlated using the stability theory for supersonic Mach numbers. Active transition fixing and feedback control of boundary layer by sound interactions are experimentally investigated at low speed over an airfoil. Numerical simulation of active control by surface heating and cooling in air shows that by appropriate phase adjustment a reduction in the level of perturbation can be obtained. This simulation is based on the solution of two-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes equations for a flat plate. Goertler vortices are studied experimentally on an airfoil in the Low Turbulence Pressure Tunnel (LTPT). The flow pattern was visualized using the sublimating chemical technique and data were obtained using a three component laser velocimeter. The effect of curvature on swept leading-edge stability on a cylinder was numerically studied. The results suggest that transition is dominated by traveling disturbance waves and that the waves with the greatest total amplification has an amplitude ratio of e sup 11. Experimental data from the quiet supersonic tunnel and flight tests are analyzed using linear compressible stability theory.
An experimental study is performed to determine the mechanisms by which a forward-facing step impacts the growth and breakdown to turbulence of the stationary cross-flow instability. Particle image velocimetry measurements are obtained in the boundary layer of a 30◦swept flat plate with a pressure body. Step heights range from 53 % to 71 % of the boundary-layer thickness. The critical step height is approximately 60 % of the boundary-layer thickness for the current study, although it is also shown that the critical step height depends on the initial amplitude of the stationary cross-flow vortices. For the critical cases, the stationary cross-flow amplitude grows sharply downstream of the step, decays for a short region and then grows again. The initial growth region is linear, and can be explained primarily through the impact of the step on the mean flow. Namely, the step causes abrupt changes to the mean flow, resulting in large values of wall-normal shear, as well as highly inflectional profiles, due to either cross-flow reversal, separation or both. These inflectional profiles are highly unstable for the stationary cross-flow. Additionally,the reversed flow regions are significantly modulated by the stationary cross-flow vortices. The second region of growth occurs due to the stationary-cross-flow-induced modulation of the shear layer, which leads to multiple smaller wavelength stream wise vortices. High-frequency fluctuations indicate that the unsteady transition mechanism for the critical cases relates to the shedding of vortices downstream of reattachment of the modulated separated regions.
A swept, supercritical laminar flow control (LFC) airfoil designated NASA SCLFC(1)-0513F was tested at subsonic and transonic speeds in the NASA Langley eight-foot Transonic Pressure Tunnel. This paper examines Tollmien-Schlichting and crossflow disturbance amplification for this airfoil using the linear stability method. The design methodology using linear stability analysis is evaluated and the results of the incompressible and compressible methods are compared. Experimental data on the swept, supercritical LFC airfoil and reference wind tunnel and flight results are used to correlate and evaluate the N-factor method for transition prediction over a speed range M(infinity) from zero to one.
Failure of the solar panels to erect and spin stabilize the TRANSIT Improvement Program (TIP) satellites is discussed, with emphasis on how the flight computer was reprogrammed to perform various control functions in order to achieve a partial mission success. These functions include: (1) power management to avoid troublesome spacecraft blackouts; (2) achieve enough spin stability to fire the OATS thruster; (3) raise the parking orbit to a workable altitude; (4) remove a high tumble rate which was the indirect result of the failure; and (5) deploy the gravity-gradient boom successfully on TIP-3.
The low transition Reynolds numbers associated with boundary-layers which exhibit crossflow instability have made them an important area of study in fluid mechanics. An excellent test bed for the study of this flow is a flat disk rotating in still fluid. An experimental investigation of stability and transition of a rotating disk boundary-layer has been conducted. The effects of isolated roughness elements and acoustic forcing, both alone and in combination, were considered. The flow showed no receptivity to intense monochromatic acoustic forcing except in the presence of sizable roughness. A case was investigated where the growth of the primary instability, seeded by an isolated roughness element, was positively altered in the presence of sound, leading to a downstream movement of transition. In agreement with the work of several investigators, the results of this study suggest that receptivity to long wavelength phenomena, such as traveling sound waves, is contingent upon the presence of strong localized pressure gradients (such as those introduced by roughness) to reduce the length scales of the disturbance to those which are consistent with unstable wavelengths in the flow field.