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At least 127 records · Page 7

The Summer of Hydrogen

Ground crew veterans at Kennedy Space Center still talk about what they call "the summer of hydrogen"-the long, frustrating months in 1990 when the shuttle fleet was grounded by an elusive hydrogen leak that foiled our efforts to fill the orbiter's external fuel tank. Columbia (STS-35) was on Launch Pad A for a scheduled May 30 launch when we discovered the hydrogen leak during - tanking. The external fuel tank is loaded through the orbiter. Liquid hydrogen flows through a 17-inch umbilical between the orbiter and the tank. During fueling, we purge the aft fuselage with gaseous nitrogen to reduce the risk of fire, and we have a leak-detection system in the mobile launch platform, which samples (via tygon tubing) the atmosphere in and around the vehicle, drawing it down to a mass spectrometer that analyzes its composition. When we progressed to the stage of tanking where liquid hydrogen flows through the vehicle, the concentration of hydrogen approached four percent-the limit above which it would be dangerously flammable. We had a leak. We did everything we could think of to find it, and the contractor who supplied the flight hardware was there every day, working alongside us. We did tanking tests, which involved instrumenting the suspected leak sources, and cryo-loaded the external tank to try to isolate precisely where the leak originated. We switched out umbilicals; we replaced the seals between the umbilical and the orbiter. We inspected the seals microscopically and found no flaws. We replaced the recirculation pumps, and we found and replaced a damaged teflon seal in a main propulsion system detent cover, which holds the prevalve-the main valve supplying hydrogen to Space Shuttle Main Engine 3 -in the open position. The seal passed leak tests at ambient temperature but leaked when cryogenic temperatures were applied. We added new leak sensors-up to twenty at a time and tried to be methodical in our placements to narrow down the possible sources of the problem. We even switched orbiters, sending Columbia back to the Vehicle Assembly Building and bringing out Atlantis, scheduled to fly as STS-38. Two shuttles on their mobile launchers passing in the night was a majestic sight, but not one you want to see if you're trying to get an orbiter launched. None of this told us where the leak was, or if we were dealing with more than one leak source.

Weber, Philip↗

Advanced fuel system technology for utilizing broadened property aircraft fuels

Factors which will determine the future supply and cost of aviation turbine fuels are discussed. The most significant fuel properties of volatility, fluidity, composition, and thermal stability are discussed along with the boiling ranges of gasoline, naphtha jet fuels, kerosene, and diesel oil. Tests were made to simulate the low temperature of an aircraft fuel tank to determine fuel tank temperatures for a 9100-km flight with and without fuel heating; the effect of N content in oil-shale derived fuels on the Jet Fuel Thermal Oxidation Tester breakpoint temperature was measured. Finally, compatibility of non-metallic gaskets, sealants, and coatings with increased aromatic content jet fuels was examined.

Reck, G. M.↗

Microbial Communities in Model Seawater-Compensated Fuel Ballast Tanks: Biodegradation and Biocorrosion Stimulated by Marine Sediments

Some naval vessels add seawater to carbon steel fuel ballast tanks to maintain stability during fuel consumption. Marine sediments often contaminate ballast tank fluids and have been implicated in stimulating fuel biodegradation and enhancing biocorrosion. The impact of the marine sediment was evaluated in model ballast tank reactors containing seawater, fuel (petroleum-F76, Fischer–Tropsch F76, or a 1:1 mixture), and carbon steel coupons. Control reactors did not receive fuel. The marine sediment was added to the reactors after 400 days and incubated for another year. Sediment addition produced higher estimated bacterial numbers and enhanced sulfate reduction. Ferrous sulfides were detected on all coupons, but pitting corrosion was only identified on coupons exposed to FT-F76. Aerobic hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria increased, and the level of dissolved iron decreased, consistent with the stimulation of aerobic hydrocarbon degradation by iron. We propose that sediments provide an inoculum of hydrocarbon-degrading microbes that are stimulated by dissolved iron released during steel corrosion. Hydrocarbon degradation provides intermediates for use by sulfate-reducing bacteria and reduces the level of fuel components inhibitory to anaerobic bacteria. The synergistic effect of dissolved iron produced by corrosion, biodegradable fuels, and iron-stimulated hydrocarbon-degrading microbes is a poorly recognized but potentially significant biocorrosion mechanism.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

High-Speed Machining (HSM) of Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) panels

The External Fuel Tank (ET) of the Space Shuttle is not recovered after launch and a new one must be provided for each launch. Currently, the external ""skin'' panels of the tank are produced by machining from solid wrought 2219-T87 aluminum plate stock approximately 1-3/4 inch thick. The reduction of costs in producing External Fuel Tank panels is obviously of increasing production rates and decreasing costs of the panels through the application of high-speed machining (HSM) techniques was conducted.

Miller, J. A.↗

Flutter study of an advanced composite wing with external stores

A flutter test using a scaled model of an advanced composite wing for a Navy attack aircraft has been conducted in the NASA Langley Research Center Transonic Dynamics Tunnel. The model was a wall-mounted half-span wing with a semi-span of 6.63 ft. The wing had an aspect ratio of 5.31, taper ratio of 0.312, and quarter-chord sweep of 25 degrees. The model was supported in a manner that simulated the load path in the carry-through structure of the aircraft and the symmetric boundary condition at the fuselage centerline. The model was capable of carrying external stores from three pylon locations on the wing. Flutter tests were conducted for the wing with and without external stores. No flutter was encountered for the clean wing at test conditions which simulated the scaled airplane operating envelope. Flutter boundaries were obtained for several external store configurations. The flutter boundaries for the fuel tanks were nearly Mach number independent (occurring at constant dynamic pressure). To study the aerodynamic effect of the fuel tank stores, pencil stores (slender cylindrical rods) which had the same mass and pitch and yaw inertia as the fuel tanks were tested on the model. These pencil store configurations exhibited a transonic dip in the flutter dynamic pressure, indicating that the aerodynamic effect of the actual fuel tanks on flutter was significant. Several flutter analyses methods were used in an attempt to predict the flutter phenomenon exhibited during the wind-tunnel test. The analysis gave satisfactory predictions of flutter for the pencil store configurations, but unsatisfactory correlation for the actual fuel tank configurations.

Cole, Stanley R.↗

Saturn V Stage I (S-IC) Overview

Objectives include: a) Become familiar with the Saturn V Stage I (S-IC) major structural components: Forward Skirt, Oxidizer Tank, Intertank, Fuel Tank, and Thrust Structure. b) Gain a general understanding of the Stage I subsystems: Fuel, Oxidizer, Instrumentation, Flight Control, Environmental Control, Electrical, Control Pressure, and Ordinance.

Interbartolo, Michael↗

Design, testing, fabrication and launch support of a liquid chemical barium release payload (utilizing the liquid fluorine-barium salt/hydrazine system)

A payload was designed which included a cryogenic oxidizer tank, a fuel tank, and burner section. Release of 30 lb of chemicals was planned to occur in 2 seconds at the optimum oxidizer to fuel ratio. The chemicals consisted of 17 lb of liquid fluorine oxidizer and 13 lb of hydrazine-barium salt fuel mixture. The fuel mixture was 17% barium chloride, 16% barium nitrate, and 67% hydrazine, and contained 2.6 lb of available barium. Two significant problem areas were resolved during the program: explosive valve development and burner operation. The release payload was flight tested, from Wallops Island, Virginia. The release took place at an altitude of approximately 260 km. The release produced a luminous cloud which expanded very rapidly, disappearing to the human eye in about 20 seconds. Barium ion concentration slowly increased over a wide area of sky until measurements were discontinued at sunrise (about 30 minutes).

Stokes, C. S.↗

Study of the application of hydrogen fuel to long-range subsonic transport aircraft. Volume 1: Summary

The feasibility of using liquid hydrogen as fuel in advanced designs of long range, subsonic transport aircraft is assessed. Both passenger and cargo type aircraft are investigated. Comparisons of physical, performance, and economic parameters of the LH2 fueled designs with conventionally fueled aircraft are presented. Design studies are conducted to determine appropriate characteristics for the hydrogen related systems required on board the aircraft. These studies included consideration of material, structural, and thermodynamic requirements of the cryogenic fuel tanks and fuel systems with the structural support and thermal protection systems.

Brewer, G. D.↗

Fire prevention on airplanes. Part II

This part of the report presents a detailed examination of spark prevention, fire extinguishers, and fuel tank location and design. A continued program of investigations and research is also proposed.

FIRE PREVENTION↗

Composite Technologies for Science Missions

ASTROLAB, Lunar Geophysical Network, Mars Icebreaker and Mars PLACER Net missions propose use of various types of vehicles – such as rovers, landers and flying probes - to accomplish their scientific objectives. Although designs for such vehicles are myriad, many structural components can be made using composite manufacturing technologies. Composite materials are also myriad, by nature, but carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) in particular are sought after for their high specific strength and specific stiffness. CFRP components could be especially beneficial in vehicle designs for Moon or Mars missions due to their nearly negligible coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). CTE is a critical design characteristics in environments where significant thermal swings are prevalent, such as those of atmosphere-less Moon and Mars.MSFC/EM42 houses several relevant composites technologies. Strong and rigid struts can be filament-wound. Shells and platforms can be laid-up using automated fiber placement (for repeatability) or by hand (for small features). Monolithic structures can even be designed to reduce part count and therefore reduce the risk of joint failures. Composites are also tailorable, allowing the incorporation of different material types or formats through the thickness of a part. This includes materials which shield from radiation or electrostatic discharge. Finally, the rigidity of composite parts minimizes overall vibration and compliance within a design.Additionally, missions such as Triton Ocean World Surveyor anticipate use of traditional, metallic fuel tanks. Composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs) are suitable for use in this application as well. The Triton mission even cites a concern for heat retention, for which CFRP also offers improved characteristics over traditional metallic tanks.

Lightweight↗

Hydrophobicity of Cryogenic Fluids for Fuel Transfer in Space Applicaitons

Introduction Hydrophobicity is the tendency of a fluid to repel another material or fluid. Hydrophobiciy can be measured through the wetting angle of the fluid on the surface of the other material. The greater the wetting angle, the more hydrophobic the surface is against the fluid. Hydrophobicity properties can be caused by one of two means, either through physical properties or chemical properties [\citenum{NARBUTT2020121}]. Physical hydrophobicity due to the surface of a solid creating surface roughness/patterning, minimizing the contact area between the fluid and the surface. This can be observed throughout nature, such as the surface of lotus leaves or butterfly wings. This physical property can be induced on a variety of surfaces, namely through laser etching, allowing a surface to be finely lineated to imitate these natural surfaces while controlling quantity, depth, and patterns of the etching on the surface [\citenum{10.1063/1.4905616}]. Physical hydrophobicity is therefore dependent on several variables, including the surface that the fluid is on and properties of the fluid itself, such as density and surface tension, both of which are dependent on temperature and/or pressure. Chemical hydrophobicity [\citenum{MadeiraHydrophobocicicici}] is due to the inherent chemical properties of the materials being used. This is most commonly due to the molecular structures changing the polarity of the materials. Depending on a nonpolar material will repel a polar material, proving to be hydrophobic, conversely if the polarity of the materials is the same (polar – polar, nonpolar – nonpolar), they will attract each other. Cryogenics refers to the behavior of materials at very low temperatures (<\ang{-100} C) [\citenum{ZOHURI20181}]. In space applications many things are inherently cryogenic, therefore this is an important field. There has been little research in how hydrophobicity changes at cryogenic temperatures. Cryogenic fluids are commonly used as fuels for spacecraft, therefore, integrating a hydrophobic surface can increase the transfer rate of the fuel. To test this, several experiments were set up to determine the hydrophobic properties of cryogenic fluids, including nitrogen (LN2), argon (LAr), oxygen (LOx), hydrogen (LH2), and methane (CH4), at cryogenic temperatures. Etched Wafer Testing A silicon wafer cut from a crystal of silicon [100] was used to model the potential hydrophobicity of various cryogenic fluids. Silicon [100] references to the crystallographic orientation of the silicon crystals in the wafer. These wafers were then laser etched to create a surface that is more likely to be hydrophobic. To test the hydrophobicity of the wafers at cryogenic temperatures, the temperatures of the wafers must be reduced to the same temperature as the cryogenic fluid being used to prevent rapid boil-off. To achieve this a double-walled vacuum insulated glass chamber was utilized. The chamber is open, with a double-walled glass that can be placed in a vacuum to remove condensation from the outside to allow easier viewing of the experiment. Furthermore, the silicon wafer's temperature must be lowered to the temperature of LN2, as well as maintain the temperature throughout the experiment. To achieve this a piece of 6061 aluminum was used, creating a stand-off for the wafer and it would allow for the insulation of the temperature of the wafers. The container was then filled with LN2 and once the LN2 stabilized the vaporization and the levels of LN2 dropped under the height of the wafer, the wafer was then allowed to air dry. Once the wafer was dry from the LN2, drops of LN2 were placed on the surface of the wafer for observation. During the first trial, the LN2 that was dropped on the surface displayed nonhydrophobic behaviors, spreading out along the surface, with a minimal wetting angle (too small to be measured). This process was repeated for liquid argon. Further testing with other cryogenic liquids will require different testing apparatuses due to being more volatile. Furthermore, several papers [\citenum{voltvolt7}] have suggested that running a voltage can induce a hydrophobic effect throughout a surface, further testing will include a voltage (constant and oscillating) to determine if voltage influences inducing hydrophobicity at cryogenic temperatures. Chemical Testing Coating the interior walls of the fuel tanks and fuel lines can successfully create a hydrophobic surface. The inherent problem is finding a material that can be used to coat the surface, furthermore, at these temperatures, the coating will remain solid, which could pose issues in maintaining the hydrophobic properties. To test this water (polar) is hydrophobic against oils and fats (nonpolar), therefore the same experiment as the etched wafer testing was conducted to determine if the hydrophobic properties will persist as the nonpolar material remains solid and the polar material remains a fluid. The water remained hydrophobic, allowing testing can expand to the cryogenic fluids. However, another hurdle is faced in finding a chemically opposite material to the cryogenic fluids being tested. As many of the cryogenic fluids being tested are diatomic, they are inherently nonpolar, therefore, the material used for the hydrophobic coating must be polar. Polar greases and lubricants are difficult to come by, however, lithium stearate, appears to be a potential candidate for creating a coated hydrophobic surface for cryogenic fluids at cryogenic temperatures.

Cryogenics↗

Evolutionary Optimization of a Quadrifilar Helical Antenna

Automated antenna synthesis via evolutionary design has recently garnered much attention in the research literature. Evolutionary algorithms show promise because, among search algorithms, they are able to effectively search large, unknown design spaces. NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft is due to reach final Martian orbit insertion in January, 2002. Onboard the spacecraft is a quadrifilar helical antenna that provides telecommunications in the UHF band with landed assets, such as robotic rovers. Each helix is driven by the same signal which is phase-delayed in 90 deg increments. A small ground plane is provided at the base. It is designed to operate in the frequency band of 400-438 MHz. Based on encouraging previous results in automated antenna design using evolutionary search, we wanted to see whether such techniques could improve upon Mars Odyssey antenna design. Specifically, a co-evolutionary genetic algorithm is applied to optimize the gain and size of the quadrifilar helical antenna. The optimization was performed in-situ in the presence of a neighboring spacecraft structure. On the spacecraft, a large aluminum fuel tank is adjacent to the antenna. Since this fuel tank can dramatically affect the antenna's performance, we leave it to the evolutionary process to see if it can exploit the fuel tank's properties advantageously. Optimizing in the presence of surrounding structures would be quite difficult for human antenna designers, and thus the actual antenna was designed for free space (with a small ground plane). In fact, when flying on the spacecraft, surrounding structures that are moveable (e.g., solar panels) may be moved during the mission in order to improve the antenna's performance.

Lohn, Jason D.↗

Flashback flame arrester devices for fuel cargo tank vapor vents

The flame quenching capability of four types of flame arresting devices suitable for installation on fuel cargo tank vents of marine transport vessels is evaluated. A single 30 mesh screen, a dual 20 mesh screen, a spiral wound crimped metal ribbon, and a packed bed of ballast rings were tested. Flame speed and flame penetration of the test arresters were determined. Eight fuels representative of bulk cargoes were tested. The test arresters quenched a minimum of three flashback flames from all eight fuels, with one exception: high speed ethylene flames penetrated the dual 20 mesh screen on three tests. The arresters withstood the sustained flame from a propane/air mixture for 30 minutes. None of the arresters withstood the sustained flame from an ethylene/air mixture for more than 7 minutes.

Bjorklund, R. A.↗

Lightning protection design and testing of an all composite wet wing for the Egrett

The Egrett aircraft has an all composite wing comprising CFC(carbon fiber composite)/Nomex sandwich skins, full length CFC main spar caps, and GFRP (glass fiber reinforced plastics) main and auxiliary spar webs. It also has short inboard CFC auxiliary spar caps. It has fine aluminum wires woven into the surface for protection. It has an integral fuel tank using the CFC/Nomex skins as the upper and lower tank walls, and lies between the forward auxiliary spar and the forward of the two main spar webs. The fuel tank is not bagged, i.e., it is in effect a wet wing tank. It has conventional capacitive type fuel gauging. The aircraft was cleared to IFR standards and so required full lightning protection and demonstration that it would survive the lightning environment. The lightning protection was designed for the wing (and also for the remainder of the aircraft). An inner wing test samples (which included a part of the fuel tank) were tested as part of the proving program. The protection design and the testing process are described. The intrinsic structural features are indicated that improve lightning protection design and which therefore minimize the weight and cost of any added lightning protection components.

Burrows, B. J. C.↗

A Theoretical Analysis of the Effects of Fuel Motion on Airplane Dynamics

The general equations of motion for an airplane with a number of spherical fuel tanks are derived. The motion of the fuel is approximated by the motion of solid pendulums. The same type of derivation and equations are shown to apply to any type of fuel tank where the motion of the fuel may be represented in terms of undamped harmonic oscillators. Motions are calculated for a present-day high-speed airplane and a free-flying airplane model with two spherical tanks in the symmetry plane.

Schy, Albert A↗

Just the Right Amount of Reinforcement

Lockheed Martin Skunk Works, is taking the next step towards economical low-Earth-orbit (LEO) operations with NASA's X-33 technology demonstrator, that uses composite tanks for liquid hydrogen (LH sub2) fuel storage and structural support, The X-33 is a 53% scale model of the VentureStar single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) reusable launch vehicle(RLV) projected to orbit payloads at a rate, of $1,000 per pound beginning in 2004 In order to make VentureStar completely reusable and economical engineers are using composite materials throughout the spacecrafts structure. The first test of the design comes in 1999 on the X-33 technology demonstrator. Two of the primary structures that engineers will be evaluating are the carbon fiber/epoxy LH2 fuel tanks. The 29-ft long by 18-ft wide tanks, which fill two-thirds of the X-33's interior, serve a dual purpose carrying fuel and providing structural support to the walls of the spacecraft. Fiber placement makes it possible to build the fuel tanks, large, light and strong enough to satisfy X33's requirements. Lockheed Martin choose the fabrication technology to produce the eight sections of each tank because of fiber placement's ability to handle complex surfaces, speed and repeatability.

Walton, Greg↗

Additional experiments on flowability improvements of aviation fuels at low temperatures, volume 2

An investigation was performed to study flow improver additives and scale-model fuel heating systems for use with aviation hydrocarbon fuel at low temperatures. Test were performed in a facility that simulated the heat transfer and temperature profiles anticipated in wing fuel tanks during flight of long-range commercial aircraft. The results are presented of experiments conducted in a test tank simulating a section of an outer wing integral fuel tank approximately full-scale in height, chilled through heat exchange panels bonded to the upper and lower horizontal surfaces. A separate system heated lubricating oil externally by a controllable electric heater, to transfer heat to fuel pumped from the test tank through an oil-to-fuel heat exchanger, and to recirculate the heated fuel back to the test tank.

Stockemer, F. J.↗

Passenger Transmitters as A Possible Cause of Aircraft Fuel Ignition

An investigation was performed to study the potential for radio frequency (RF) power radiated from transmitting Portable Electronic Devices (PEDs) to create an arcing/sparking event within the fuel tank of a large transport aircraft. A survey of RF emissions from typical intentional transmitting PEDs was first performed. Aircraft measurements of RF coupling to the fuel tank and its wiring were also performed to determine the PEDs induced power on the wiring, and the re-radiated power within the fuel tank. Laboratory simulations were conducted to determine the required RF power level for an arcing/sparking event. Data analysis shows large positive safety margins, even with simulated faults on the wiring.

Nguyen, Truong X.↗