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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 127 records · Page 7
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1990

Elevated central venous pressure: A consequence of exercise training-induced hypervolemia

Resting plasma volumes, and arterial and central venous pressures (CVP) were measured in 16 men before and after exercise training to determine if training-induced hypervolemia could be explained by a change in total vascular capacitance. In addition, resting levels of plasma vasopressin (AVP), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), aldosterone (ALD), and norepinephrine (NE) were measured before and after training. The same measurements of vacular volume, pressures, and plasma hormones were measured in 8 subjects who did not undergo exercise and acted as controls. The exercise training program consisted of 10 weeks of controlled cycle exercise for 30 min/d, 4 d/wk at 75 to 80 percent of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). A training effect was verified by a 20 percent increase in VO2max, a resting bradycardia, and a 370 ml (9 percent) increase in blood volume. Mean arterial blood pressure was unaltered by exercise training, but resting CVP increased. The percent change in blood volume from before to after training was linearly related to the percent change in CVP. As a consequence of elevations in both blood volume and CVP, the volume-to-pressure ratio was essentially unchanged following exercise training. Plasma AVP, ANP, ALD, and NE were unaltered. Results indicate that elevated CVP is a consequence of training-induced hypervolemia without alteration in total effective venous capacitance. This may represent a resetting of the pressure-volume stimulus-response relation for regulation of blood volume.

Convertino, Victor A.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Locomotion training of legged robots using hybrid machine learning techniques

In this study artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic are used to control the jumping behavior of a three-link uniped robot. The biped locomotion control problem is an increment of the uniped locomotion control. Study of legged locomotion dynamics indicates that a hierarchical controller is required to control the behavior of a legged robot. A structured control strategy is suggested which includes navigator, motion planner, biped coordinator and uniped controllers. A three-link uniped robot simulation is developed to be used as the plant. Neurocontrollers were trained both online and offline. In the case of on-line training, a reinforcement learning technique was used to train the neurocontroller to make the robot jump to a specified height. After several hundred iterations of training, the plant output achieved an accuracy of 7.4%. However, when jump distance and body angular momentum were also included in the control objectives, training time became impractically long. In the case of off-line training, a three-layered backpropagation (BP) network was first used with three inputs, three outputs and 15 to 40 hidden nodes. Pre-generated data were presented to the network with a learning rate as low as 0.003 in order to reach convergence. The low learning rate required for convergence resulted in a very slow training process which took weeks to learn 460 examples. After training, performance of the neurocontroller was rather poor. Consequently, the BP network was replaced by a Cerebeller Model Articulation Controller (CMAC) network. Subsequent experiments described in this document show that the CMAC network is more suitable to the solution of uniped locomotion control problems in terms of both learning efficiency and performance. A new approach is introduced in this report, viz., a self-organizing multiagent cerebeller model for fuzzy-neural control of uniped locomotion is suggested to improve training efficiency. This is currently being evaluated for a possible patent by NASA, Johnson Space Center. An alternative modular approach is also developed which uses separate controllers for each stage of the running stride. A self-organizing fuzzy-neural controller controls the height, distance and angular momentum of the stride. A CMAC-based controller controls the movement of the leg from the time the foot leaves the ground to the time of landing. Because the leg joints are controlled at each time step during flight, movement is smooth and obstacles can be avoided. Initial results indicate that this approach can yield fast, accurate results.

Simon, William E.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Autogenic-Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE) Method and System

The Autogenic-Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE) method of the present invention is a combined application of physiologic and perceptual training techniques. such as autogenic therapy and biofeedback. This combined therapy approach produces a methodology that is appreciably more effective than either of the individual techniques used separately. The AFTE method enables sufficient magnitude of control necessary to significantly reduce the behavioral and physiologic reactions to severe environmental stressors. It produces learned effects that are persistent over time and are resistant to extinction and it can be administered in a short period of time. The AFTE method may be used efficiently in several applications, among which are the following: to improve pilot and crew performance during emergency flying conditions; to train people to prevent the occurrence of nausea and vomiting associated with motion and sea sickness, or morning sickness in early pregnancy; as a training method for preventing or counteracting air-sickness symptoms in high-performance military aircraft; for use as a method for cardiovascular training, as well as for multiple other autonomic responses, which may contribute to the alleviation of Space Motion Sickness (SMS) in astronauts and cosmonauts; training people suffering from migraine or tension headaches to control peripheral blood flow and reduce forehead and/or trapezius muscle tension; training elderly people suffering from fecal incontinence to control their sphincter muscles; training cancer patients to reduce the nauseagenic effects of chemotherapy; and training patients with Chronic Intestinal Pseudo-obstruction (CIP).

Cowings, Patricia S.↗
NASA NTRS2000

What the Logs Can Tell You: Mediation to Implement Feedback in Training

The problem addressed by Mediation to Implement Feedback in Training (MIFT) is to customize the feedback from training exercizes by exploiting knowledge about the training scenario, training objectives, and specific student/teacher needs. We achieve this by inserting an intelligent mediation layer into the information flow from observations collected during training exercises to the display and user interface. Knowledge about training objectives, scenarios, and tasks is maintained in the mediating layer. A designer constraint is that domain experts must be able to extend mediators by adding domain-specific knowledge that supports additional aggregations, abstractions, and views of the results of training exercises. The MIFT mediation concept is intended to be integrated with existing military training exercise management tools and reduce the cost of developing and maintaining separate feedback and evaluation tools for every training simulator and every set of customer needs. The MIFT Architecture is designed as a set of independently reusable components which interact with each other through standardized formalisms such as the Knowledge Interchange Format (KIF) and Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language (KQML).

Maluf, David↗
NASA NTRS2000

SHARED VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS FOR COLLECTIVE TRAINING

Historically NASA has trained teams of astronauts by bringing them to the Johnson Space Center in Houston to undergo generic training, followed by mission-specific training. This latter training begins after a crew has been selected for a mission (perhaps two years before the launch of that mission). While some Space Shuttle flights have included an astronaut from a foreign country, the International Space Station will be consistently crewed by teams comprised of astronauts from two or more of the partner nations. The cost of training these international teams continues to grow in both monetary and personal terms. Thus, NASA has been seeking alternative training approaches for the International Space Station program. Since 1994 we have been developing, testing, and refining shared virtual environments for astronaut team training, including the use of virtual environments for use while in or in transit to the task location. In parallel with this effort, we have also been preparing applications for training teams of military personnel engaged in peacekeeping missions. This paper will describe the applications developed to date, some of the technological challenges that have been overcome in their development, and the research performed to guide the development and to measure the efficacy of these shared environments as training tools.

Loftin, R. Bowen↗
NASA NTRS2001

STS-104 Crew Training Clips

The crewmembers of STS-104, Commander Steven Lindsey, Pilot Charles Hobaugh, and Mission Specialists Michael Gernhardt, James Reilly, and Janet Kavandi, are seen during various stages of their training. Footage shows the following: (1) Water Survival Training at the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL); (2) Rendezvous and Docking Training in the Shuttle Mission Simulator; (3) Training in the Space Station Airlock; (4) Training in the Virtual Reality Lab; (5) Post-insertion Operations in the Fixed Base Simulator; (6) Extravehicular Activity Training at the NBL; (7) Crew Stowage Training in the Space Station Mock-up Training Facility; and (8) Water Transfer Training in the Crew Compartment Trainer.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1992

Influence of exercise training on the oxidative capacity of rat abdominal muscles

Our purpose was to determine if endurance exercise training would increase the oxidative capacity of the abdominal expiratory muscles of the rat. Accordingly, 9 male rats were subjected to an endurance training protocol (1 h/day, 6 days/week, 9 weeks) and 9 litter-mates served as controls. Citrate synthase (CS) activity was used as an index of oxidative capacity, and was determined in the following muscles: soleus, plantaris, costal diaphragm, crural diaphragm, and in all four abdominal muscles: rectus abdominis, transversus abdominis, external oblique, and internal oblique. Compared to their non-trained litter-mates, the trained rats had higher peak whole body oxygen consumption rates (+ 16%) and CS activities in plantaris (+34%) and soleus (+36%) muscles. Thus, the training program caused substantial systemic and locomotor muscle adaptations. The CS activity of costal diaphragm was 20% greater in the trained animals, but no difference was observed in crural diaphragm. The CS activity in the abdominal muscles was less than one-half of that in locomotor and diaphragm muscles, and there were no significant changes with training except in the rectus abdominis where a 26% increase was observed. The increase in rectus abdominis CS activity may reflect its role in postural support and/or locomotion, as none of the primary expiratory pumping muscles adapted to the training protocol. The relatively low levels of CS activity in the abdominal muscles suggests that they are not recruited frequently at rest, and the lack of an increase with training indicates that these muscles do not contribute significantly to the increased ventilatory activity accompanying exercise in the rat.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS2007

Skeletal Adaptations to Different Levels of Eccentric Resistance Following Eight Weeks of Training

Coupled concentric-eccentric resistive exercise maintains bone mineral density (BMD) during bed rest and aging. PURPOSE: We hypothesized that 8 wks of lower body resistive exercise training with higher ratios of eccentric to concentric loading would enhance hip and lumbar BMD. METHODS: Forty untrained male volunteers (34.9+/-7.0 yrs, 80.9+/-9.8 kg, 178.2+/-7.1 cm; mean+/-SD) were matched for leg press (LP) 1-Repetition Maximum (1-RM) strength and randomly assigned to one of 5 training groups. Concentric load (% 1-RM) was constant across groups, but each group trained with different levels of eccentric load (0, 33, 66, 100, or 138% of concentric) for all training sessions. Subjects performed a periodized supine LP and heel raise (HR) training program 3 d wk-1 for 8 wks using a modified Agaton Fitness System (Agaton Fitness AB, Boden, Sweden). Hip and lumbar BMD (g/sq cm) was measured in triplicate pre- and post-training using DXA (Hologic Discovery ). Pre- and post-training means were compared using the appropriate ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc tests. Within group pre- to post-training BMD was compared using paired t-tests with a Bonferroni adjustment. RESULTS: There was a main effect of training on L1, L2, L3, L4, total lumbar, and greater trochanter BMD, but there were no differences between groups. CONCLUSION: Eights wks of lower body resistive exercise increased greater trochanter and lumbar BMD. Inability to detect group differences may have been influenced by a potentially osteogenic vibration associated with device operation in the 0, 33, and 66% groups.

English, Kirk L.↗
NASA NTRS2006

An Experimental Study of the Effect of Out-of-the-Window Cues on Training Novice Pilots on a Flight Simulator

The effects of out-of-the-window cues on learning a straight-in landing approach and a level 360deg turn by novice pilots on a flight simulator have been investigated. The treatments consisted of training with and without visual cues as well as density of visual cues. The performance of the participants was then evaluated through similar but more challenging tasks. It was observed that the participants in the landing study who trained with visual cues performed poorly than those who trained without the cues. However the performance of those who trained with a faded-cues sequence performed slightly better than those who trained without visual cues. In the level turn study it was observed that those who trained with the visual cues performed better than those who trained without visual cues. The study also showed that those participants who trained with a lower density of cues performed better than those who trained with a higher density of visual cues.

Khan, M. Javed↗
NASA NTRS2007

Exploring and Visualizing A-Train Instrument Data

The succession of US and international satellites that follow each other in close succession, known as the A-Train, affords an opportunity to atmospheric researchers that no single platform could provide: Increasing the number of observations at any given geographic location.. . a more complete "virtual science platform". However, vertically and horizontally, co-registering and regridding datasets from independently developed missions, Aqua, Calipso, Cloudsat, Parasol, and Aura, so that they can be inter-compared can be daunting to some, and may be repeated by many. Scientists will individually spend much of their time and resources acquiring A-Train datasets of interest residing at various locations, developing algorithms to match up and graph datasets along the A-Train track, and search through large amounts of data for areas and/or phenomena of interest. The aggregate amount of effort that can be expended on repeating pre-science tasks could climb into the tens of millions of dollars. The goal of the A-Train Data Depot (ATDD) is to enable free movement of remotely located A-Train data so that they are combined to create a consolidated vertical view of the Earth's Atmosphere along the A-Train tracks. The innovative approach of analyzing and visualizing atmospheric profiles along the platforms track (i.e., time) is accomplished by through the ATDDs Giovanni data analysis and visualization tool. Giovanni brings together data from Aqua (MODIS, AIRS, AMSR-E), Cloudsat (cloud profiling radar) and Calipso (CALIOP, IIR), as well as the Aura (OMI, MLS, HIRDLS, TES) to create a consolidated vertical view of the Earth's Atmosphere along the A-Train tracks. This easy to learn and use exploration tool will allow users to create vertical profiles of any desired A-Train dataset, for any given time of choice. This presentation shows the power of Giovanni by describing and illustrating how this tool facilitates and aids A-Train science and research. A web based display system Giovanni provides users with the capability of creating co-located profile images of temperature and humidity data from the MODIS, MLS and AIRS instruments for a user specified time and spatial area. In addition, Cloud and Aerosol profiles may also be displayed for the Cloudsat and Caliop instruments. The ability to modify horizontal and vertical axis range, data range and dynamic color range is also provided. Two dimensional strip plots of MODIS, AIRS, OM1 and POLDER parameters, co-located along the Cloudsat reference track, can also be plotted along with the Cloudsat cloud profiling data. Center swath pixels for the same parameters can also be shown as line plots overlaying the Cloudsat or Calipso profile images. Images and subsetted data produced in each analysis run may be downloaded. Users truly can explore and discover data specific to their needs prior to ever transferring data to their analysis tools.

Kempler, S.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Blended Training for Combat Medics

Bleeding from extremity wounds is the number one cause of preventable death on the battlefield and current research stresses the importance of training in preparing every Soldier to use tourniquets. HapMed is designed to provide tourniquet application training to combat medics and Soldiers using a blended training solution encompassing information, demonstration, practice, and feedback. The system combines an instrumented manikin arm, PDA, and computer. The manikin arm provides several training options including stand-alone, hands-on skills training in which soldiers can experience the actual torque required to staunch bleeding from an extremity wound and be timed on tourniquet application. This is more realistic than using a block of wood to act as a limb, which is often how training is conducted today. Combining the manikin arm with the PDA allows instructors to provide scenario based training. In a classroom or field setting, an instructor can specify wound variables such as location, casualty size, and whether the wound is a tough bleed. The PDA also allows more detailed feedback to be provided. Finally, combining the manikin arm with game-based technologies, the third component, provides opportunities to build knowledge and to practice battlefield decision making. Not only do soldiers learn how to apply a tourniquet, but when to apply a tourniquet in combat. The purpose of the paper is to describe the learning science underlying the design of HapMed, illustrate the training system and ways it is being expanded to encompass other critical life-saving tasks, and report on feedback received from instructors and trainees at military training and simulation centers.

Fowlkes, Jennifer↗
NASA NTRS2010

Developing Collective Training for Small Unmanned Aerial Systems Employment

The projected use of small unmanned aerial systems (SUAS) in military operations will produce training requirements which go beyond current capabilities. The paper describes the development of prototype training procedures and accompanying research simulations to address this need. We initially constructed a testbed to develop simulation-based training for an SUAS operator equipped with a simulated vertical-lift and land SUAS. However, the required training will go beyond merely training an operator how to pilot an SUAS. In addition to tactics, techniques, and procedures for employment of SUASs, collective training methods must be trained. Moreover, the leader of a unit equipped with SUAS will need to learn how to plan missions which incorporate the SUAS, and take into account air space and frequency management considerations. The demands of the task require the leader to allocate personnel to the SUAS mission, communicate and coordinate with those personnel during the mission, and make use of the information provided. To help address these training issues, we expanded our research testbed to include a command and control node (C2 node), to enable communications between a leader and the SUAS operator. In addition, we added a virtual environment in which dismounted infantry missions can be conducted. This virtual environment provides the opportunity for interactions among human-controlled avatars and non-player characters (NPCs), plus authoring tools to construct scenarios. Using these NPCs, a collective exercise involving friendly, enemy, and civilian personnel can be conducted without the need for a human role-player for every entity. We will describe the results of our first experiment, which examined the ability of players to negotiate use of the C2 node and the virtual environment at the same time, in order to see if this is a feasible combination of tools for training development.

Durlach, Paula J.↗
NASA NTRS2011

The Final Count Down: A Review of Three Decades of Flight Controller Training Methods for Space Shuttle Mission Operations

Operations of human spaceflight systems is extremely complex, therefore the training and certification of operations personnel is a critical piece of ensuring mission success. Mission Control Center (MCC-H), at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, in Houston, Texas manages mission operations for the Space Shuttle Program, including the training and certification of the astronauts and flight control teams. As the space shuttle program ends in 2011, a review of how training for STS-1 was conducted compared to STS-134 will show multiple changes in training of shuttle flight controller over a thirty year period. This paper will additionally give an overview of a flight control team s makeup and responsibilities during a flight, and details on how those teams have been trained certified over the life span of the space shuttle. The training methods for developing flight controllers have evolved significantly over the last thirty years, while the core goals and competencies have remained the same. In addition, the facilities and tools used in the control center have evolved. These changes have been driven by many factors including lessons learned, technology, shuttle accidents, shifts in risk posture, and generational differences. A primary method used for training Space Shuttle flight control teams is by running mission simulations of the orbit, ascent, and entry phases, to truly "train like you fly." The reader will learn what it is like to perform a simulation as a shuttle flight controller. Finally, the paper will reflect on the lessons learned in training for the shuttle program, and how those could be applied to future human spaceflight endeavors.

Dittemore, Gary D.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Effects of Motion Cues on the Training of Multi-Axis Manual Control Skills

The study described in this paper investigated the effects of two different hexapod motion configurations on the training and transfer of training of a simultaneous roll and pitch control task. Pilots were divided between two groups which trained either under a baseline hexapod motion condition, with motion typically provided by current training simulators, or an optimized hexapod motion condition, with increased fidelity of the motion cues most relevant for the task. All pilots transferred to the same full-motion condition, representing motion experienced in flight. A cybernetic approach was used that gave insights into the development of pilots use of visual and motion cues over the course of training and after transfer. Based on the current results, neither of the hexapod motion conditions can unambiguously be chosen as providing the best motion for training and transfer of training of the used multi-axis control task. However, the optimized hexapod motion condition did allow pilots to generate less visual lead, control with higher gains, and have better disturbance-rejection performance at the end of the training session compared to the baseline hexapod motion condition. Significant adaptations in control behavior still occurred in the transfer phase under the full-motion condition for both groups. Pilots behaved less linearly compared to previous single-axis control-task experiments; however, this did not result in smaller motion or learning effects. Motion and learning effects were more pronounced in pitch compared to roll. Finally, valuable lessons were learned that allow us to improve the adopted approach for future transfer-of-training studies.

flight simulators↗
NASA NTRS2024

Transfer of NASA Technology to the DoD: Mitigating Motion Sickness with Autogenic Feedback Training Exercise

Motion sickness poses a significant safety risk, particularly in the context of aviation. Given its prevalence among aviators and its detrimental impact on performance, researchers have attempted to identify effective mitigation strategies for motion sickness. Currently, many of the existing interventions are pharmacological, and while effective, they present a problem due to their associated adverse side effects. The primary goals of the current research were 1) demonstrate the value of the application of Autogenic-Feedback Training Exercise (AFTE), a physiological training program developed by NASA to mitigate the impact of operational stressors such as motion sickness and spatial disorientation on human physiology and performance and 2) evaluate a new enhanced version of AFTE training software and demonstrate the ability to apply it remotely and train other personnel to administer it. AFTE combines principles of autogenic therapy, and biofeedback in training individuals to control their physiological reactions through a series of relaxation and arousal exercises. This study included twenty-six participants, 17 men and 9 women. On day 1 participants were tested in a rotating chair (pre-test) to determine their motion sickness tolerance (measured as minutes of rotation); days 2-5 consisted of four AFTE training sessions, each 30-min. in duration for a total of 2 hours; and on day 6 the participants were re-tested in the rotating chair. Results revealed a significant increase in motion sickness tolerance with AFTE on the post-test when compared to pre-test, participants had significantly lower symptom diagnostic scores post-test, and there was no significant gender effect. In addressing the first goal it was concluded that the modified 2-hour version of AFTE significantly improved motion sickness tolerance with participants experiencing fewer symptoms. A second goal of this research was to refine and transfer a NASA technology, software and methods for applications within DOD by training other personnel to administer AFTE. A comparison of NASA and NAMRU-D trainers on AFTE outcome for improving participants’ motion sickness tolerance revealed no significant difference indicating the successful transfer of methods to DOD. In addition, remote AFTE training of military aviators at distant sites was feasible. A third goal was to identify individual patterns of interoceptive abilities and related autonomic metrics able to predict stress response and training outcome. These data included measures of personality traits obtained from questionnaires and specific autonomic measures (e.g., heart rate variability) collected by NAMRU-D investigators. These results will be reported in a separate paper.

autonomic nervous system↗
NASA NTRS1991

Elevated central venous pressure: a consequence of exercise training-induced hypervolemia?

Resting blood volumes and arterial and central venous pressures (CVP) were measured in 14 men before and after exercise training to determine whether training-induced hypervolemia is accompanied by a change in total vascular capacitance. In addition, resting levels of plasma arginine vasopressin (AVP), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), aldosterone (Ald), and norepinephrine (NE) were measured. The same measurements were conducted in seven subjects who did not undergo exercise and acted as controls. Exercise training consisted of 10 wk of controlled cycle exercise for 30 min/day, 4 days/wk at 75-80% of maximal O2 uptake (VO2max). A training effect was verified by a 20% increase in VO2max, a resting bradycardia, and a 9% increase in blood volume. Mean arterial blood pressure was unaltered by exercise training, but resting CVP increased by 16% (P less than 0.05). The percent change in blood volume from before to after training was linearly related to the percent change in CVP (r = 0.903, P less than 0.05). As a consequence of elevations in both blood volume and CVP, the volume-to-pressure ratio was unchanged after exercise training. Plasma AVP, ANP, Ald, and NE were unaltered. Our results indicate that elevated CVP is a consequence of training-induced hypervolemia without alteration in total effective venous capacitance.

NASA Program Space Physiology and Countermeasures↗
NASA NTRS2007

Revisiting Training and Verification Process Implementation for Risk Reduction on New Missions at NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

In 2003 we proposed an effort to develop a core program of standardized training and verification practices and standards against which the implementation of these practices could be measured. The purpose was to provide another means of risk reduction for deep space missions to preclude the likelihood of a repeat of the tragedies of the 1998 Mars missions. We identified six areas where the application of standards and standardization would benefit the overall readiness process for flight projects at JPL. These are Individual Training, Team Training, Interface and Procedure Development, Personnel Certification, Interface and procedure Verification, and Operations Readiness Testing. In this paper we will discuss the progress that has been made in the tasks of developing the proposed infrastructure in each of these areas. Specifically we will address the Position Training and Certification Standards that are now available for each operational position found on our Flight Operations Teams (FOT). We will also discuss the MGSS Baseline Flight Operations Team Training Plan which can be tailored for each new flight project at JPL. As these tasks have been progressing, the climate and emphasis for Training and for V and V at JPL has changed, and we have learned about the expansion, growth, and limitations in the roles of traditional positions at JPL such as the Project's Training Engineer, V and V Engineer, and Operations Engineer. The need to keep a tight rein on budgets has led to a merging and/or reduction in these positions which pose challenges to individual capacities and capabilities. We examine the evolution of these processes and the roles involved while taking a look at the impact or potential impact of our proposed training related infrastructure tasks. As we conclude our examination of the changes taking place for new flight projects, we see that the importance of proceeding with our proposed tasks and adapting them to the changing climate remains an important element in reducing the risk in the challenging business of space exploration.

verifications↗
NASA NTRS2014

Identification of Medical Training Methods for Exploration Missions

As the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its international partner agencies anticipate eventual exploration missions of longer duration, there is a need to plan for the medical capabilities necessary to maximize crew health and provide the best likelihood of mission success. Current spaceflights consist of 5- to 6-month excursions to the International Space Station (ISS) in low-Earth orbit (LEO), and a 12-month ISS mission is currently in planning stages. However, missions to a near-Earth asteroid (NEA), a return to the moon, or even a mission to Mars will demand unprecedented medical capabilities, particularly relating to the training of the crew medical officers (CMOs). In its attempts to address the questions about medical preparation for spaceflight beyond LEO, the Exploration Medical Capability (ExMC) element within NASA's Human Research Program (HRP) defines a series of gaps. These gaps are shortcomings in knowledge, training, or technology that require resolution before an exploration mission can be undertaken. The ExMC element maintains current information about measures to close these gaps while developing plans for further investigation and research. Data pertaining to the gaps and their present status are available to the general public on the NASA Human Research Wiki and the NASA Human Research Roadmap Web sites (34, 36). One such gap, Gap 3.01, identifies a lack of knowledge about the optimal training methods for in-flight medical conditions identified on the Exploration Medical Condition List (EMCL), taking into account the crew medical officer s (CMOs) clinical background (33). This broad statement encompasses several related issues with the current methods of training CMOs and the medical ground support staff, specifically flight surgeons and biomedical engineers (BMEs) located in mission control, in addition to questions pertaining to the ways in which training will need to be adapted for the medical contingencies unique to exploration missions. To determine the optimal methods of medical training for an exploration medical crew and their ground support team, the historical context of medical operations, the current CMO training methods, and potential alternative training methods were identified.

Long duration space flight↗