NASA research on promising V/STOL aircraft concepts
NASA research program on vertical and short takeoff and landing aircraft, including transports, helicopters, and tactical fighters
Brewer, J. D.↗
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System Identification for eVTOL Aircraft Using Simulated Flight Data
This paper describes a system identification method for electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft. The approach merges fixed-wing and rotary-wing modeling techniques with new strategies to develop a modeling method for eVTOL vehicles using flight test data. The eVTOL aircraft system identification approach is demonstrated through application to the NASA LA-8 tandem tilt-wing, distributed electric propulsion aircraft using a high-fidelity flight dynamics simulation. Orthogonal phase-optimized multisine inputs are applied to each control surface and propulsor at numerous flight conditions throughout the flight envelope to collect informative flight data. An aero-propulsive model is identified at each flight condition using the equation-error method in the frequency domain. The local model parameters are then blended to create a global model across the nominal flight envelope. Parameter estimation results are shown to provide a good fit to modeling data and have good prediction capability. The methodology is developed with a discussion of unique eVTOL vehicle aerodynamic characteristics and practical strategies intended to inform future flight-based system identification efforts for eVTOL aircraft.
system identification↗
Aero-Propulsive Damping Characterization for eVTOL Aircraft Using Free Motion Wind-Tunnel Testing
This paper describes an electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft system identification method applied using three degree-of-freedom (3DOF) free motion wind-tunnel testing. The approach, similar to flight-test system identification, allows for efficient mathematical model development of the aero-propulsive moments applied on an eVTOL vehicle, including aerodynamic damping effects. The approach is demonstrated using a subscale tiltrotor eVTOL aircraft mounted on a new 3DOF wind-tunnel apparatus. To execute the test, a model-based 3DOF control system is designed to track attitude commands and transition the aircraft based on the freestream dynamic pressure. While the flight controller is active, orthogonal phase-optimized multisine inputs are injected into the attitude command and control effector command signals to enable collection of informative data for model identification. Aero-propulsive models are then identified at several reference conditions in the transition flight envelope using the equation-error method in the frequency domain. The identified models are shown to have a good fit to the modeling data and good prediction capability of data not used for model identification. The method yields aerodynamic damping estimates using less wind-tunnel test time compared to traditional forced oscillation experiments and supplements static wind-tunnel testing to produce a comprehensive transition aero-propulsive model suitable for use in flight dynamics simulations.
RAVEN↗
NASA's Aeronautics Vision
Six long-term technology focus areas are: 1. Environmentally Friendly, Clean Burning Engines. Focus: Develop innovative technologies to enable intelligent turbine engines that significantly reduce harmful emissions while maintaining high performance and increasing reliability. 2. New Aircraft Energy Sources and Management. Focus: Discover new energy sources and intelligent management techniques directed towards zero emissions and enable new vehicle concepts for public mobility and new science missions. 3. Quiet Aircraft for Community Friendly Service. Focus: Develop and integrate noise reduction technology to enable unrestricted air transportation service to all communities. 4. Aerodynamic Performance for Fuel Efficiency. Focus: Improve aerodynamic efficiency,structures and materials technologies, and design tools and methodologies to reduce fuel burn and minimize environmental impact and enable new vehicle concepts and capabilities for public mobility and new science missions. 5. Aircraft Weight Reduction and Community Access. Focus: Develop ultralight smart materials and structures, aerodynamic concepts, and lightweight subsystems to increase vehicle efficiency, leading to high altitude long endurance vehicles, planetary aircraft, advanced vertical and short takeoff and landing vehicles and beyond. 6. Smart Aircraft and Autonomous Control. Focus: Enable aircraft to fly with reduced or no human intervention, to optimize flight over multiple regimes, and to provide maintenance on demand towards the goal of a feeling, seeing, sensing, sentient air vehicle.
Tenney, Darrel R.↗
Rapid Aero Modeling for Urban Air Mobility Aircraft in Computational Experiments
Rapid Aero Modeling (RAM) applied to computational testing, RAM-C, is an approach to efficiently and automatically obtain aerodynamic models during computational investigations. RAM-C is designed to estimate models appropriate for flight dynamics studies and simulations. The approach responds to a demand for experimental efficiency and model fidelity that has increased with growing aircraft complexity and aerodynamic nonlinearities associated with hybrid and electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft. In an Urban Air Mobility (UAM) transportation system, it is expected that aircraft will embrace many features from both airplanes and rotorcraft. These vehicles present many more factors than conventional aircraft which can lead to increased computational costs and missed key factor interactions when applying traditional testing and modeling methods. RAM-C provides feedback loops around computational codes to rapidly guide testing toward aerodynamic models meeting user-defined fidelity goals. It combines and extends concepts from design of experiment theory and aircraft system identification theory that allow the user the freedom to choose, in advance of the test, a specific level of fidelity in terms of prediction error. RAM-C only collects enough data required to meet the user-specified prediction error requirements thus saving computational time and resources. The overall achievable fidelity of the final model also depends on the accuracy of the test facility, or in this case, the computational modeling approach. Previous studies to support development of the RAM-T process were conducted in wind tunnel tests to assess potential metrics, algorithms, and procedures. This paper presents results from the next steps taken and tests conducted for the development of RAM-C technology and highlights some of the unique features of RAM applied eVTOL configurations in a computational study.
Aerodynamics↗
Novel Tilting Ducted-Fan Aerial Vehicle Configurations
There has been recent renewed interested in ducted-fan, powered-lift vertical takeoff and landing aircraft vehicles for uninhabited aerial vehicle and urban aerial mobility aerial applications. Early work was conducted in the 1950’s to the late 1980’s into ducted-fan vehicles, especially at the time for military missions. The focus of ducted-fan research began to shift to UAV’s and personal air transportation in the 2000’s. Work in the early 2000’s fostered interest into ducted-fan aerial vehicles for vertical lift planetary aerial vehicle missions, especially for missions to Titan, a moon of Saturn. For example, early work at NASA Ames conducted the first known investigation into oval ducts (with internal tandem fans) to be used for these aerial vehicles. The use of twin oval ducts (with internal tandem fans) allowed the use of quadrotor-style rotor rpm control for vehicle trim (in hover, for transition to high-speed forward flight the addition of a tilt-actuator to pitch the twin oval ducts forward to be aligned with the freestream needed to be added to the control approach. This current study explores open-rotor, single isolated ducted-fan, and full vehicle configuration aerodynamic performance for hover, transition, and cruise regimes for novel tilting ducted-fan aerial vehicle configurations. The objective of this study is to better understand the design aerodynamics trade space for noncircular tilting ducted-fans. The primary analysis tool used in this paper is the mid-fidelity computational fluid dynamics RotCFD tool. Several interesting and largely unexplored rotor-on-rotor (or fan-on-fan), duct-on-rotor, rotor- on-duct, and duct-on-airframe are examined in this paper. Many of these aerodynamic interactions are the key to overall aerial vehicle performance. Limited parametric sweeps of rotor-to-rotor spacing (and, therefore, sizing and shape of the enveloping ducts) for the various duct configurations will also be performed. The trade-offs between duct thrust augmentation in hover versus improved transition controllability versus improved cruise L/D will be discussed for various novel duct configurations. These ducted-fan configurations include oval ducts, ‘figure-eight’ ducts, and ‘B-shaped’ ducts, among others.
Ducted-Fan↗
Ski jump takeoff performance predictions for a mixed-flow, remote-lift STOVL aircraft
A ski jump model was developed to predict ski jump takeoff performance for a short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft. The objective was to verify the model with results from a piloted simulation of a mixed flow, remote lift STOVL aircraft. The prediction model is discussed. The predicted results are compared with the piloted simulation results. The ski jump model can be utilized for basic research of other thrust vectoring STOVL aircraft performing a ski jump takeoff.
Birckelbaw, Lourdes G.↗
Evaluation of Novel eVTOL Aircraft Automation Concepts
As new electric propulsion technologies have matured, many new electric propulsion Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft concepts have been proposed. These new aircraft concepts enable the creation of new aviation markets including Urban Air Mobility (UAM) but also pose new challenges in safety assurance. One early challenge is the evaluation of the diverse aircraft configurations and accompanying advanced control systems and automation designed to aid controllability. This paper describes a research activity to propose candidate means of evaluation for the aircraft concepts and automation in the context of UAM operations. The research activity proposes the adaptation of an evaluation design standard used by the military for advanced rotorcraft along with proposed descriptions and definitions to support evaluation of diverse automated concepts in the civilian eVTOL community.
AAM↗
Efficient Variable-Pitch Propeller Aerodynamic Model Development for Vectored-Thrust eVTOL Aircraft
This paper describes a variable-pitch propeller testing and aerodynamic modeling methodology for electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft using wind tunnel testing. Propellers used for eVTOL aircraft propulsion systems experience a wide range of operating conditions resulting in significant variation of axial thrust and torque, as well as off-axis forces and moments, across a typical flight envelope. An experimental design is developed to collect informative wind tunnel data in an efficient manner using response surface methods. System identification methods are then applied to isolated propeller wind tunnel data to develop a mathematical model of the propeller valid throughout the transition envelope of a vectored-thrust eVTOL aircraft. Multiple explanatory variable definitions are postulated and compared using modeling and prediction performance metrics. Modeling results validated against data withheld from the modeling process indicate good predictive capability and agree with theoretical expectations. All identified propeller models are provided, which allows the models to be used in future eVTOL aircraft flight dynamics simulations.
aerodynamic modeling↗
Generalized hot-gas ingestion investigation of large-scale jet VTOL fighter type models
Hot gas ingestion investigation of large scale jet vertical takeoff fighter type aircraft
Hemeter, P. G.↗
Research On The CH-47B Helicopter
Report describes equipment added to, and research capabilities of CH-47B helicopter. Programmable symbol generator provides display formats for variety of missions - those of vertical-takeoff-and-landing aircraft and helicopters. Powerful general-purpose flight computer in operation. Computer programmable in high-level languages and supports research more efficiently. Flight-control software developed to improve capability of helicopter to perform simulations in flight.
Hilbert, Kathryn B.↗
Hot gas ingestion characteristics and flow visualization of a vectored thrust STOVL concept
A 9.2 percent scale short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) hot gas ingestion model was designed and built by McDonnell Douglas Corporation (MCAIR) and tested in the NASA Lewis Research Center 9- by 15-Foot Low Speed Wind Tunnel (LSWT). Hot gas ingestion, the entrainment of heated engine exhaust into the inlet flow field, is a key development issue for advanced short takeoff and vertical landing aircraft. The Phase 1 test program, conducted by NASA Lewis and McDonnell Douglas Corporation, evaluated the hot ingestion phenomena and control techniques and Phase 2 test program which was conducted by NASA Lewis are both reported. The Phase 2 program was conducted at exhaust nozzles temperatures up to 1460 R and utilized a sheet laser system for flow visualization of the model flow field in and out of ground effects. Hot gas ingestion levels were measured for the several forward nozzle splay configurations and with flow control/lift improvement devices which reduced the hot gas ingestion. The model support system had four degrees of freedom, heated high pressure air for nozzle flow, and a suction system exhaust for inlet flow. The headwind (freestream) velocity for Phase 1 was varied from 8 to 90 kn, with primary data taken in the 8 to 23 kn headwind velocity range. Phase 2 headwind velocity varied from 10 to 23 kn. Results of both Phase 1 and 2 are presented. A description of the model, facility, a new model support system, and a sheet laser illumination system are also provided. Results are presented over a range of main landing gear height (model height) above the ground plane at a 10 kn headwind velocity. The results contain the compressor face pressure and temperature distortions, total pressure recovery, compressor face temperature rise, and the environmental effects of the hot gas. The environmental effects include the ground plane temperature and pressure distributions, model airframe heating, and the location of the ground flow separation. Results from the sheet laser flow visualization test are also shown.
Johns, Albert L.↗
Flight control design considerations for STOVL powered-lift flight
Short Takeoff Vertical Landing (STOVL) aircraft rely on the propulsion system for the lift and control functions during slow speed flight. The propulsion system provides the entire lifting force and all of the control power for hovering flight at zero airspeed. STOVL designs such as the General Dynamics E-7D ejector configuration incorporate an integrated flight/propulsion control system to manage the aerodynamic and propulsive-lift control effectors and to reduce the pilot's workload for powered-lift flight. Desired flying qualities characteristics are implemented through the utilization of an explicit model following flight control system. With the model following control system, the pilot commands the desired response (e.g., throttle commands vertical velocity in hover, instead of power lever angle). Design considerations for developing a multivariable model-following flight control system are presented in this paper. When the regulator gains are defined in terms of generalized controls, the design problem becomes how to best transform the generalized controls to aerodynamic control surface, thrust and thrust vectoring commands.
Vincent, James H.↗
Hot gas ingestion test results of a two-poster vectored thrust concept with flow visualization in the NASA Lewis 9- x 15-foot low speed wind tunnel
A 9.2 percent scale Short Takeoff and Vertical Landing (STOVL) hot gas ingestion model was designed and built by McDonnell Douglas Corporation (MCAIR) and tested in the Lewis Research Center 9 x 15 foot Low Speed Wind Tunnel (LSWT). Hot gas ingestion, the entrainment of heated engine exhaust into the inlet flow field, is a key development issure for advanced short takeoff and vertical landing aircraft. Flow visualization from the Phase 1 test program, which evaluated the hot ingestion phenomena and control techniques, is covered. The Phase 2 test program evaluated the hot gas ingestion phenomena at higher temperatures and used a laser sheet to investigate the flow field. Hot gas ingestion levels were measured for the several forward nozzle splay configurations and with flow control/life improvement devices (LIDs) which reduced the hot gas ingestion. The model support system had four degrees of freedom - pitch, roll, yaw, and vertical height variation. The model support system also provided heated high-pressure air for nozzle flow and a suction system exhaust for inlet flow. The test was conducted at full scale nozzle pressure ratios and inlet Mach numbers. Test and data analysis results from Phase 2 and flow visualization from both Phase 1 and 2 are documented. A description of the model and facility modifications is also provided. Headwind velocity was varied from 10 to 23 kn. Results are presented over a range of nozzle pressure ratios at a 10 kn headwind velocity. The Phase 2 program was conducted at exhaust nozzle temperatures up to 1460 R and utilized a sheet laser system for flow visualization of the model flow field in and out of ground effects. The results reported are for nozzle exhaust temperatures up to 1160 R. These results will contain the compressor face pressure and temperature distortions, the total pressure recovery, the inlet temperature rise, and the environmental effects of the hot gas. The environmental effects include the ground plane contours, the model airframe heating, and the location of the ground flow separation.
Johns, Albert L.↗
Performance characteristics of a variable-area vane nozzle for vectoring an ASTOVL exhaust jet up to 45 deg
Many conceptual designs for advanced short-takeoff, vertical landing (ASTOVL) aircraft need exhaust nozzles that can vector the jet to provide forces and moments for controlling the aircraft's movement or attitude in flight near the ground. A type of nozzle that can both vector the jet and vary the jet flow area is called a vane nozzle. Basically, the nozzle consists of parallel, spaced-apart flow passages formed by pairs of vanes (vanesets) that can be rotated on axes perpendicular to the flow. Two important features of this type of nozzle are the abilities to vector the jet rearward up to 45 degrees and to produce less harsh pressure and velocity footprints during vertical landing than does an equivalent single jet. A one-third-scale model of a generic vane nozzle was tested with unheated air at the NASA Lewis Research Center's Powered Lift Facility. The model had three parallel flow passages. Each passage was formed by a vaneset consisting of a long and a short vane. The longer vanes controlled the jet vector angle, and the shorter controlled the flow area. Nozzle performance for three nominal flow areas (basic and plus or minus 21 percent of basic area), each at nominal jet vector angles from -20 deg (forward of vertical) to +45 deg (rearward of vertical) are presented. The tests were made with the nozzle mounted on a model tailpipe with a blind flange on the end to simulate a closed cruise nozzle, at tailpipe-to-ambient pressure ratios from 1.8 to 4.0. Also included are jet wake data, single-vaneset vector performance for long/short and equal-length vane designs, and pumping capability. The pumping capability arises from the subambient pressure developed in the cavities between the vanesets, which could be used to aspirate flow from a source such as the engine compartment. Some of the performance characteristics are compared with characteristics of a single-jet nozzle previously reported.
Mcardle, Jack G.↗
Performance characteristics of a variable-area vane nozzle for vectoring an ASTOVL exhaust jet up to 45 deg
Many conceptual designs for advanced short-takeoff, vertical landing (ASTOVL) aircraft need exhaust nozzles that can vector the jet to provide forces and moments for controlling the aircraft's movement or attitude in flight near the ground. A type of nozzle that can both vector the jet and vary the jet flow area is called a vane nozzle. Basically, the nozzle consists of parallel, spaced-apart flow passages formed by pairs of vanes (vanesets) that can be rotated on axes perpendicular to the flow. Two important features of this type of nozzle are the abilities to vector the jet rearward up to 45 degrees and to produce less harsh pressure and velocity footprints during vertical landing than does an equivalent single jet. A one-third-scale model of a generic vane nozzle was tested with unheated air at the NASA Lewis Research Center's Powered Lift Facility. The model had three parallel flow passages. Each passage was formed by a vaneset consisting of a long and a short vane. The longer vanes controlled the jet vector angle, and the shorter controlled the flow area. Nozzle performance for three nominal flow areas (basic and plus or minus 21 percent of basic area), each at nominal jet vector angles from -20 deg (forward of vertical) to +45 deg (rearward of vertical) are presented. The tests were made with the nozzle mounted on a model tailpipe with a blind flange on the end to simulate a closed cruise nozzle, at tailpipe-to-ambient pressure ratios from 1.8 to 4.0. Also included are jet wake data, single-vaneset vector performance for long/short and equal-length vane designs, and pumping capability. The pumping capability arises from the subambient pressure developed in the cavities between the vanesets, which could be used to aspirate flow from a source such as the engine compartment. Some of the performance characteristics are compared with characteristics of a single-jet nozzle previously reported.
Mcardle, Jack G.↗
Design and Development of a Deep Acoustic Lining for the 40-by 80-Foot Wind Tunnel Test Section
The work described in this report has made effective use of design teams to build a state-of-the-art anechoic wind-tunnel facility. Many potential design solutions were evaluated using engineering analysis, and computational tools. Design alternatives were then evaluated using specially developed testing techniques, Large-scale coupon testing was then performed to develop confidence that the preferred design would meet the acoustic, aerodynamic, and structural objectives of the project. Finally, designs were frozen and the final product was installed in the wind tunnel. The result of this technically ambitious project has been the creation of a unique acoustic wind tunnel. Its large test section (39 ft x 79 ft x SO ft), potentially near-anechoic environment, and medium subsonic speed capability (M = 0.45) will support a full range of aeroacoustic testing-from rotorcraft and other vertical takeoff and landing aircraft to the take-off/landing configurations of both subsonic and supersonic transports.
Soderman, Paul T.↗
Development of a Thermal Management System for Electrified Aircraft
This paper describes the development and optimization of a conceptual thermal management system for electrified aircraft. Here, a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) vehicle is analyzed with the following electrically sourced heat loads considered: motors, generators, rectifiers, and inverters. The vehicle will employ liquid-cooling techniques in order to acquire, transport, and reject waste heat from the vehicle. The purpose of this paper is to threefold: 1) Present a potential modeling framework for system level thermal management system simulation, 2) Analyze typical system characteristics, and 3) Perform optimization on a system developed for a specific vehicle to minimize weight gain, power utilization, and drag. Additionally, the paper will study the design process, specifically investigating the differences between steady state and transient sizing, comparing simulation techniques with a lower fidelity option and quantifying expected error.
Chapman, Jeffryes W.↗