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This paper addresses some of the scientific puzzles that astronomers may face in the next century. Four areas in astronomy are discussed in detail. These include cosmology and galaxy formation, active galaxies and quasars, supernovae and stellar remnants, and the formation of stars and planets. A variety of observatories on the Moon are proposed to attack these astronomical challenges.
The Suzaku high-resolution X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) is the first orbiting x-ray microcalorimeter. This instrument, which maintains the sensor at less than 0.1K and utilizes liquid He and solid Ne cryogens, is capable of providing very high, non-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The microcalorimeter approach enables increasing spectral resolving power toward increasing energy. This fundamental characteristic makes it the instrument of choice for a variety of spectral diagnostics that can be uniquely obtained from studies of Fe K-line features common in such objects as cluster of galaxies and active galaxies, to name only two important classes out of many. The array aspect allows for imaging spectroscopy of extended sources without spectral degradation. Unfortunately, a design flaw in the XRS dewar/spacecraft interface caused the premature loss of liquid helium and rendered the instrument miusable. Nonetheless, during the three weeks following the launch of Suzaku, the instrument performed extremely well and demonstrated that the basic microcalorimeter concept is sound for space applications. An energy resolution of 7 eV FWHM at 6keV was obtained in orbit as measured using internal calibration sources. We will describe the XRS design and operation, explain what happened, and then present some lessons learned for future space missions utilizing this powerful technology.
It is shown that the observed spectrum of the diffuse gamma-ray background could be accounted for by unresolved active galaxies even with no evolution, if their spectra are described by a spherical accretion/shock acceleration model (1983) and are steepened by photon-photon pair production interactions at high energies. The model is based on HEAO-1 and SAS-2 observations in the region of 2 to 165 keV and above 30 MeV. The model predicts a higher flux of high-energy neutrinos from active galaxies than models in which electrons are accelerated directly. It is noted that several active galaxies should be detectable by the Gamma-Ray Observatory, making it possible to determine the actual contribution of active galaxies to the diffuse gamma-ray background.
The authors present preliminary results from a study of selected Arp-Madore Southern Hemisphere peculiar galaxies. Broadband charge coupled device (CCD) images (BVRI) of a subset of these galaxies allow us to study each galaxy's optical morphology, color, and (in a crude manner) degree of nuclear activity, and to compare them with similar data we possess on other active galaxies. Many of these galaxies have optical morphologies closely resembling those of powerful radio galaxies (Smith and Heckman 1989), yet their radio emission is unremarkable. Accurate positions for subsequent spectroscopic studies have been determined along with broad band photometry and morphology studies. Detailed observations of these comparatively bright, low-redshift, well-resolved interacting systems should aid our understanding of the role interactions play in triggering galaxy activity. This work is the initial effort in a long term project to study the role played by the dynamics of the interaction in the production and manifestations of activity in galaxies, and the frequency of galaxy mergers.
Existing gamma-ray data on active galaxies are summarized. It is shown that diffuse extragalactic gamma radiation may be the result of active galaxies extended over cosmological distances. The principal satellite opportunities for active galaxy gamma-ray astronomy in the near future are Gamma-I, Sigma, and the Gamma Ray Observatory; the latter will permit highly sensitive measurements of gamma-ray specra from below 0.1 MeV to above 10,000 MeV.
The X-ray selected active galaxy 1E 1403 + 5439 has been found to increase its X-ray flux by a factor 5.5 + or - 1.9 over an interval of 161 days. No other X-ray selected emission line active galaxy has been observed to vary by such a large factor. The X-ray source 1E 1403 + 5439 lies about 18 arcmin from the center of the large spiral galaxy M101. This proximity suggests that gravitational microlensing may be responsible for the extraordinary variability of this active galaxy.
The interaction of a supersonic wind generated by an active nucleus, a nuclear wind, with the hot interstellar medium of an elliptical host galaxy is investigated. We survey the basic time and spatial scales of this interaction through a study covering the range of probable wind and galaxy parameters. The evolving wind/ISM interaction is detailed, with the conclusion that a true equilibrium state is never possible due to long cooling times. Alteration of the wind by mass loading is considered, and a relationship between nuclear winds and central stellar clusters in this context is outlined. The nuclear wind will fundamentally alter the interstellar medium of the host galaxy. Powerful radio galaxies and quasars can evacuate the entire ISM of their host galaxy. In an isolated elliptical galaxy, winds from moderately powerful radio galaxies will either be confined to within about a kpc or evacuate the entire hot ISM. Even in the relatively high pressure ISM of elliptical galaxies winds containing only 1 percent-10 percent of the radiant luminosity of the active nucleus will extend to the narrow-line region. Therefore, nuclear winds are likely to control the properties of the narrow-line emission.
This talk will review the present knowledge, based on x-ray observations (Einstein, ROSAT, ASCA) of low-luminosity activity in otherwise normal galaxies. These phenomena cover the x-ray emission of low-luminosity AGN and LINERs found in the nuclei of galaxies. The talk will discuss these phenomena in the context of the more general AGN phenomenon. The other type of activity, which will also be discussed, is connected with enhanced starburst activity. Starburst activity has been found linked in x-rays with hot galactic winds, and gives us direct evidence of the interplay between galaxies and the surrounding medium. The talk will conclude by discussing the opportunities offered by the upcoming launch of AXAF.
Improved understanding of the nature of active galaxies will require detailed observations of 10 to 20 sources, while understanding of their gamma ray luminosity function and its evolution will require the detection of approximately 100 sources. Instruments capable of detecting 100 active galaxies at low-energy, gamma ray energies are achievable. The angular resolution of an instrument, as well as its sensitivity, can limit the number of sources it can observe. An investigation of the angular resolution requirements for future low-energy gamma ray instruments is presented. It was found that the strictest requirements arise not from the need to resolve detectable sources, but from the need to control the level of direction-to-direction fluctuations in the diffuse background level. It was concluded that gamma-ray instruments capable of detecting 100 active galaxies must have sub-degree angular resolution. The use of the coded aperture imaging technique is proposed as a method of achieving accurate control of systematic errors and fine angular resolution without unduly increasing the time needed to conduct full sky surveys. An analysis of coded aperture imaging is presented for instruments that employ masks based on hexagonal uniformly redundant arrays. An instrument, the gamma-ray imaging payload, was built that employs these imaging techniques. The design and testing of the instrument is described in detail. Preliminary results from a balloon flight of the instruments are shown, demonstrating its imaging performance.
We have carried out 60 micron imaging observations of a sample of nearby, far-infrared bright galaxies, using the Yerkes infrared camera aboard the KAO. A total of eleven galaxies have been observed, most of which are actively star-forming, barred spirals. In this contribution we present our first set of observations on four galaxies: NGC 4102, NGC 4536, NGC 5962, and NGC 6181.
We present a catalogue of 191 extragalactic sources detected by the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) at 148 and/or 218 GHz in the 2008 Southern survey. Flux densities span 14 -1700 mJy, and we use source spectral indices derived using ACT-only data to divide our sources into two subpopulations: 167 radio galaxies powered by central active galactic nuclei (AGN) and 24 dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs). We cross-identify 97 per cent of our sources (166 of the AGN and 19 of the DSFGs) with those in currently available catalogues. When combined with flux densities from the Australia Telescope 20 GHz survey and follow-up observations with the Australia Telescope Compact Array, the synchrotron-dominated population is seen to exhibit a steepening of the slope of the spectral energy distribution from 20 to 148 GHz, with the trend continuing to 218 GHz. The ACT dust-dominated source population has a median spectral index, A(sub 148-218), of 3.7 (+0.62 or −0.86), and includes both local galaxies and sources with redshift around 6. Dusty sources with no counterpart in existing catalogues likely belong to a recently discovered subpopulation of DSFGs lensed by foreground galaxies or galaxy groups.
We present a catalogue of 191 extragalactic sources detected by the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) at 148 and/or 218 GHz in the 2008 Southern survey. Flux densities span 14 - 1700 mJy, and we use source spectral indices derived using ACT-only data to divide our sources into two subpopulations: 167 radio galaxies powered by central active galactic nuclei (AGN) and 24 dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs). We cross-identify 97 per cent of our sources (166 of the AGN and 19 of the DSFGs) with those in currently available catalogues. When combined with flux densities from the Australia Telescope 20 GHz survey and follow-up observations with the Australia Telescope Compact Array, the synchrotron-dominated population is seen to exhibit a steepening of the slope of the spectral energy distribution from 20 to 148 GHz, with the trend continuing to 218 GHz. The ACT dust-dominated source population has a median spectral index, alpha(sub 148−218), of 3.7 +0.62/-0.86), and includes both local galaxies and sources with redshift around 6. Dusty sources with no counterpart in existing catalogues likely belong to a recently discovered subpopulation of DSFGs lensed by foreground galaxies or galaxy groups.
We present a catalog of 191 extragalactic sources detected by the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) at 148 GHz and/or 218GHz in the 2008 Southern survey. Flux densities span 14-1700mJy, and we use source spectral indices derived using ACT-only data to divide our sources into two sub-populations: 167 radio galaxies powered by central active galactic nuclei (AGN), and 24 dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs). We cross-identify 97% of our sources (166 of the AGN and 19 of the DSFGs) with those in currently available catalogs. When combined with flux densities from the Australian Telescope 20 GHz survey and follow-up observations with the Australia Telescope Compact Array, the synchrotron-dominated population is seen to exhibit a steepening of the slope of the spectral energy distribution from 20 to 148GHz, with the trend continuing to 218GHz. The ACT dust-dominated source population has a median spectral index, alpha(sub 148−218), of 3.7+0.62 or −0.86, and includes both local galaxies and sources with redshifts as great as 5.6. Dusty sources with no counterpart in existing catalogs likely belong to a recently discovered subpopulation of DSFGs lensed by foreground galaxies or galaxy groups.
VLA results are presented for southern interacting galaxies at 6 and 20 cm, with a view to the detection and classification of the nature of radio emission in a set of advanced-interaction disk galaxies. Maps of radio emission are given for the 42 interacting systems in the sample, as well as 10 control systems, and radio properties are compared with optical and IR properties; the radio in all of the present interacting galaxies are attributable to properties associated with a burst of star formation due to galaxy interaction.
A number of active galaxies are now known at very large redshifts, some of them even have properties suggestive of galaxies in the process of formation. They commonly show strong Ly-alpha emission, at least some of which appears to be ionized by young stars. Inferred star formation rates are in the range approximately = 100-500 solar mass/yr. An important question is: are there radio-quiet, field counterparts of these systems at comparable redshifts? Whereas, we are probably already observing some evolutionary and formative processes of distant radio galaxies, the ultimate goal is to observe normal galaxies at the epoch when most of their stars form. We have, thus, started a search for emission-line objects at large redshifts, ostensibly young and forming galaxies. Our method is to search for strong line emission (hopefully Ly alpha) employing two techniques: a direct, narrow-band imaging search, using a Fabry-Perot interferometer; and a serendipitous long-slit spectroscopic search.
J, H, K, L', and N observations of galaxies detected at 12 microns by IRAS are combined with IRAS flux densities to investigate the relationship between the infrared sizes and colors of galaxian infrared sources. It is found that typical IRAS galaxies have 10 micron radii of 0.5 to 2.0 kpc, while active galaxies and galaxies with higher 25 to 60 micron color temperatures are smaller. One unusal object, 23060+0505, is at high redshift and has an infrared luminosity of 1.5 x 10 to the 12th power L sub 0. Its 1 to 100 micron energy distribution resembles that of a Seyfert 1 galaxy, but it shows very little sign of broad line emission in the visible. Its properties suggest that it may be a prototype for a class of highly obscured active galaxy.
ISO studies of normal galaxies in the local Universe have revealed basic new properties whose significant implications for the star formation process and cosmology are only starting to be understood. This review will touch on the general results of a statistical nature, and provide a quick summary of the profusion of exciting results on individual objects. In the mid-infrared, PHT-S has established that the spectra of star forming galaxies between 6 and-13microns are dominated by the Aromatic Features in Emission (AFE), and show little variation as a function of the heating intensity. The Carriers of the AFE (CAFE) are thus a universal component of dust with standard properties, and contribute between 10 and 25% of the total dust luminosity. In addition to AFE, the spectra show a low-level continuum detectable at wavelengths longer than 3.5microns whose origin is still under investigation. The mid-infrared colors formed as the ratio of flux densities in the 6.75micron and the 15micron bands of ISO-CAM remain essentially constant and near unity for quiescent and mildly active galaxies. As dust heating increases further, the 15micron flux increases steeply compared to 6.75microns, indicating that dust heated to 100K<T<200K becomes a significant component. Such hot dust is presumably located within or just outside HII regions. At the other end of the spectrum, photometry at 120-200microns using ISO-PHOT is starting to constrain the distribution of dust temperatures at the low end of the temperature scale. From LWS data, the far-infrared fine-structure lines of [CII] and [OI], which provide most of the cooling for warm atomic gas, show variations that have remained controversial in their interpretation. In particular, as the galaxy become more active in star formation, its [CII] flux weakens relative to total dust emission while the [OI] does not. This behavior has attracted much interest because it extrapolates to the most active galaxies, making them weaker in [CII] than previously expected. Several explanations for the effect have been advanced, and will be discussed in this review. Spectroscopy with SWS has measured molecular hydrogen in galaxies, providing a powerful handle on the warm molecular gas content. SWS and CAM-CVF studies targeting ionic fine-structure lines have demonstrated their value as diagnostics of the radiation field.
Using self-consistent, physically motivated models, we investigate the X-ray obscuration in 19 Type 2 [O iii] 5007Å selected active galactic nuclei (AGNs), 9 of which are local Seyfert 2 galaxies and 10 of which are Type 2 quasar candidates. We derive reliable line-of-sight and global column densities for these objects, which is the first time this has been reported for an AGN sample; four AGNs have significantly different global and line-of-sight column densities. Five sources are heavily obscured to Compton-thick. We comment on interesting sources revealed by our spectral modeling, including a candidate "naked" Sy2. After correcting for absorption, we find that the ratio of the rest-frame, 2-10 keV luminosity (L2−10 keV,in) to L[O iii] is 1.54 +/- 0.49 dex which is essentially identical to the mean Type 1 AGN value. The Fe K(alpha) luminosity is significantly correlated with L[O iii] but with substantial scatter. Finally, we do not find a trend between L2−10 keV,in and global or line-of-sight column density, between column density and redshift, between column density and scattering fraction, or between scattering fraction and redshift. Key words: galaxies: active - galaxies: Seyfert - X-rays: general