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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 127 records · Page 7
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

FY 2018 ARM Radar Plan

The fundamental objective of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Climate Research Facility radar facility is to provide high-quality radar observations to the scientific user community with an overarching goal of improving the treatment of clouds and precipitation in climate models. Historically, ARM has operated zenith-profiling cloud radars at millimeter wavelengths at five of its facilities. Since 2010, 16 scanning systems have been added to the radar facility. The ARM radar facility has 33 radars in its possession at three fixed sites and three mobile facilities. A breakdown of the ARM radar assets is given below: 8 Scanning ARM Clouds Radar Systems (SACR: two radars on single pedestal; six 1st- and two 2nd- generation) 7 Ka-band ARM Zenith profiling Radar (KAZR: five 1st- and two 2nd-generation) 5 X-band Scanning ARM precipitation Radar (XSAPR: four 1st- and one 2nd-generation) 3 C-band Scanning ARM precipitation Radar (CSAPR: two 1st- and one 2nd-generation) 1 W-band ARM Cloud Radar (WACR) 1 Marine W-band ARM Cloud Radar (MWACR: configured to be deployed on a stable table or scanning pedestal). Of these radars, all but six (two SACRs [accounting for four radars], one KAZR, and one 1st-generation CSAPR) have operational assignments. Therefore, the current measurement strategy involves operating 27 radars, not including radar wind profilers (RWPs). This array of instruments represents a combination of scanning and profiling radars at ARM’s sites. In addition to the scanning capabilities, the radars at each site differ in operating frequency, technology, and complexity, but all are complex systems. Some of them were custom designed and built specifically for ARM. Typically, newer systems take a few years to reach operational maturity with adequate characterization, calibration, testing, and quality control. Due to various factors, not all of the radars have achieved an operationally mature status sufficient to provide high-quality data in a research environment. In addition, these radars are often deployed in remote locations and harsh environments to meet science needs. The remoteness of such complex systems is a considerable challenge for continuous operations. Tools needed for a research-level operational radar are not readily available from vendors, and many of the necessary system management tools, both hardware and software, to manage these systems must be developed in-house for such deployments. Based on experience over the past seven years, including conclusions from the first phase of the radar plan, implemented in mid-2016, it is clear that ARM cannot support the operation of all 27 currently deployed radars and expect to provide research-quality data (including higher-order products) with the current resources. Experience from the first phase of the radar plan has provided a better indication than has been available previously of what size radar network is reasonable. A preliminary proposal for what that radar network could look like is provided here. The plan presented here uses the available resources to best support this proposed network.

ARM Mobile Facility↗
DOE OSTI2010

Experimental Modal Analysis on a Rotating Fan Using Tracking-CSLDV

Continuous Scan Laser Doppler Vibrometry (CSLDV) modifies the traditional mode of operation of a vibrometer by sweeping the laser measurement point continuously over the structure while measuring, enabling one to measure spatially detailed mode shapes quickly and minimizing the inconsistencies that can arise if the structure or test conditions change with time. When a periodic scan path is employed, one can decompose the measurement into the response that would have been measured at each point traversed by the laser and obtain the structure's mode shapes and natural frequencies using conventional modal analysis software. In this paper, continuous-scan vibrometry is performed on a rotating fan, using computer controlled mirrors to track the rotating fan blades while simultaneously sweeping the measurement point over the blades. This has the potential to circumvent the difficulty of attaching contact sensors such as strain gauges, which might modify the structure and invalidate the results. In this work, impact excitation was used to excite a 3-blade fan rotating at various speeds, and the blades were scanned with a cloverleaf pattern that captured the bending of all three blades simultaneously. Some specialized signal processing is helpful in minimizing the effect of rotation frequency harmonics in the measurements, and specific scan strategies are needed to avoid those frequencies, both of these issues are discussed in the paper. While noise in the laser vibrometer does pose some difficulty, the results show that several modes could be extracted and that the tracking-CSLDV results agree with measurements obtained from the parked fan.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
NASA NTRS1974

Coherent optical noise suppression device

The present work describes a scheme for a noise suppression system to be used with an afocal coherent optical data processor. The noise averaging scheme is based on the simple principle of moving input and output film planes together during exposure; the noise pattern remains stationary while the desired (filtered) image moves through it. The noise suppression system consists of a drive motor, right-angle gear box, reversing gear assemblage, right-angle gear drive, and micrometer adjusting translation tables. The device was tested by using a Sayce target containing fundamental spatial frequencies from 5 lines/mm to 100 lines/mm as the input signal. The output was photographed on Pan-X 35-mm film with and without the noise suppression system in operation. Microdensitometer scans of the exposed output film show that without noise averaging, resolution is good to about 80 lines/mm, while with noise averaging, it is good to about 35 lines/mm. A brief analysis of errors in the mechanical parts of the system reponsible for the upper limit of resolution is presented.

Horner, J. L.↗
NASA NTRS1989

Thermal enclosures for electronically scanned pressure modules operating in cryogenic environments

Specific guidelines to design, construct, and test ESP thermal enclosures for applications at cryogenic temperatures are given. The enclosures maintain the ESP modules at a constant temperature (10 C plus or minus 1 C) to minimize thermal zero and sensitivity shifts, to minimize the frequency of expensive on-line calibrations, and to avoid adverse effects on tunnel and model boundary layers. The enclosures are constructed of a rigid closed-cell foam and are capable of withstanding the stagnation pressures to 932kPa (135 psia) without reduction in thermal insulation properties. This construction procedure has been used to construct several thermal packages which have been successfully used in National Transonic Facility.

Mitchell, Michael↗
NASA NTRS2018

ATMS Radiometric Noise Characterization

The Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS), on SNPP and NOAA-20, provides vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles that are a key input to numerical weather prediction. Full characterization of radiometric noise is critical to error modeling, algorithm development and the potential development of performance requirements and product improvements. This paper presents estimates of white noise and low-frequency 1/f noise as derived from the Allan variance and scan-to-scan autocorrelations of data from the internal hot calibration. This approach allows direct comparison of on-orbit performance of the two units as well as comparison between ground calibration test data and on-orbit performance. The autocorrelation at multiple scan intervals is used as input to a theoretical model of the NET of inferred scene brightness temperature, when using weighted samples of calibration data over multiple scans. This will support selection of optimized calibration weighting functions for each channel, as well as providing further insight into the striping phenomenon. These measured autocorrelations are also compared to the autocorrelations derived from the 1/f spectra obtained both in special ground and on-orbit tests that characterize gain fluctuation. Channel cross-correlations are also presented, which can have a significant impact on effectiveness of direct assimilation performance.

instrument calibration↗
NASA NTRS2019

Microphysical Retrievals from Simultaneous Measurements by Airborne and Ground Radars during OLYMPEX

The OLYMPEX field campaign took place over the Olympic Peninsula of Washington during winter 2015-2016. During the intensive observing period, several aircraft flights obtained multi-frequency airborne radar measurements at X-, Ku-, Ka, and W-band from radars aboard the ER-2 and DC-8 aircraft. In addition, ground radars at S- and X-band performed RHI scans under the aircraft ground tracks. These coincident datasets provide a wealth of complementary information about the hydrometeor particle sizes, shapes, and orientations.In order to synthesize these measurements and test the robustness of scattering models, an optimal estimation retrieval based upon a Hitschfeld-Bordan profiling algorithm has been developed. This algorithm retrieves profiles of the particle size distribution parameters Nw and Dm, and, in the ice phase, relative proportions of aggregate, pristine, and rimed particles, using scattering models with different size-density and size-aspect ratio relationships. Under this formulation, only the pristine particles are horizontally aligned and capable of producing non-zero ZDR and KDP.From the nadir-looking airborne multifrequency radars, we find that aggregates may be readily distinguished from rimed and pristine particles owing to their uniqueness in triple-frequency space. However, rimed and pristine particles occupy a similar region in this space and thus polarimetric measurements greatly enhance their identification in our retrieval framework. With these capabilities we will present analyses of three-dimensional hydrometeor mapping obtained during various OLYMPEX cases. Some features retrieved in these cases include a layer of enhanced aggregation about 2km above the melting layer, hypothesized to be maintained by orographic uplift. This layer is often situated above a layer of denser, aligned particles. Regions of riming and supercooled liquid water beneath generating cells are also identified by our retrieval algorithm. Comparisons to in-situ observations and evaluation of scattering models will be presented.

Munchak, S. Joseph↗
DOE OSTI2015

Ultrasonic imaging of materials under unconventional circumstances

This paper reflects the contents of the plenary talk given by Nico Felicien Declercq. “Ultrasonic Imaging of materials” covers a wide technological area with main purpose to look at and to peek inside materials. In an ideal world one would manage to examine materials like a clairvoyant. Fortunately this is impossible hence nature has offered sufficient challenges to mankind to provoke curiosity and to develop science and technology. Here we focus on the appearance of certain undesired physical effects that prohibit direct imaging of materials in ultrasonic C-scans. Furthermore we try to make use of these effects to obtain indirect images of materials and therefore make a virtue of necessity. First we return to one of the oldest quests in the progress of mankind: how thick is ice? Our ancestors must have faced this question early on during migration to Northern Europe and to the America’s and Asia. If a physicist or engineer is not provided with helpful tools such as a drill or a device based on ultrasound, it is difficult to determine the ice thickness. Guided waves, similar to those used for nondestructive testing of thin plates in structural health monitoring can be used in combination with the human ear to determine the thickness of ice. To continue with plates, if an image of its interior is desired high frequency ultrasonic pulses can be applied. It is known by the physicist that the resolution depends on the wavelength and that high frequencies usually result in undesirably high damping effects inhibiting deep penetration into the material. To the more practical oriented engineer it is known that it is advantageous to polish surfaces before examination because scattering and diffraction of sound lowers the image resolution. Random scatterers cause some blurriness but cooperating scatters, causing coherent diffraction effects similar to the effects that cause DVD’s to show rainbow patterns under sunlight, can cause spooky images and erroneous measurements of material properties. However when properly understood, diffraction effects, for instance if one has no other options but to work with frequencies that are fortuitously very effectively diffracted by the surface structure of a material under investigation, can be used to obtain high contract images or to obtain information that would normally be hidden from standard C-scan techniques. Similar contrast enhancement is also obtained for oblique C-scans of composites.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2012

Waterless Coupling of Ultrasound from Planar Contact Transducers to Curved and Irregular Surfaces during Non-destructive Ultrasonic Evaluations

The Applied Physics group at the Pacific The Applied Physics group at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in Richland, WA has evaluated a method for waterless/liquidless coupling of ultrasonic energy from planar ultrasonic contact transducers to irregular test surfaces for ultrasonic non-destructive evaluation applications. Dry couplant material placed between a planar transducer face and a curved or uneven steel or plastic surface allows for effective sound energy coupling and preserves the integrity of the planar transducer sound field by serving as an acoustic impedance matching layer, providing good surface area contact between geometrically dissimilar surfaces and conforming to rough and unsmooth surfaces. Sound fields radiating from planar ultrasonic contact transducers coupled to curved and uneven surfaces using the dry coupling method were scanned and mapped using a Pinducer receiver connected to a raster scanner. Transducer sound field coverage at several ultrasonic frequencies and several distances from the transducer contact locations were found to be in good agreement with theoretical beam divergence and sound field coverage predictions for planar transducers coupled to simple, planar surfaces. This method is valuable for applications that do not allow for the use of traditional liquid-based ultrasonic couplants due to the sensitivity of the test materials to liquids and for applications that might otherwise require curved transducers or custom coupling wedges. The selection of dry coupling material is reported along with the results of theoretical sound field predictions, the laboratory testing apparatus and the empirical sound field data.

Couplant↗
NASA NTRS1973

Electrically scanning microwave radiometer for Nimbus E

An electronically scanning microwave radiometer system has been designed, developed, and tested for measurement of meteorological, geomorphological and oceanographic parameters from NASA/GSFC's Nimbus E satellite. The system is a completely integrated radiometer designed to measure the microwave brightness temperature of the earth and its atmosphere at a microwave frequency of 19.35 GHz. Calibration and environmental testing of the system have successfully demonstrated its ability to perform accurate measurements in a satellite environment. The successful launch and data acquisition of the Nimbus 5 (formerly Nimbus E) gives further demonstration to its achievement.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1993

Laser beam steering device

Agile beam steering is a critical requirement for airborne and space based LIDAR and optical communication systems. Design and test results are presented for a compact beam steering device with low inertia which functions by dithering two complementary (positive and negative) binary optic microlens arrays relative to each other in directions orthogonal to the direction of light propagation. The miniaturized system has been demonstrated at scan frequencies as high as 300 Hz, generating a 13 x 13 spot array with a total field of view of 2.4 degrees. The design is readily extendable to a 9.5 degree field of view and a 52 x 52 scan pattern. The system is compact - less than 2 in. on a side. Further size reductions are anticipated.

Motamedi, M. E.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Glenn Goddard TDRSS Waveform 1.1.3 On-Orbit Performance Report

The objective of the Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) Testbed is to study the development, testing, and operation of software defined radios (SDRs) and their associated appliations in the operational space environment to reduce cost and risk for future space missions. This report covers the results of on-orbit performance testing completed using the Glenn Goddard Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) waveform version 1.1.3 in the ground and space environments. The Glenn Goddard TDRSS (GGT) waveform, operating on the SCaN Testbed Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) SDR, is capable of a variety of data rates and frequencies, operating using Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK).

space communications↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-Speed and High-Quality Field Welding Repair Based on Advanced Non-Destructive Evaluation and Numerical Modeling

Creep strength-enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steels such as Grade 91 (9Cr-1Mo-V) and Grade 92 (Fe-9Cr-2W-0.5Mo) steels are widely used in the fossil-fuel-fired and nuclear power plants. The weld integrity of these steels is crucial for power plants' safe and reliable operations. Due to harsh service conditions, the steel weld can become susceptible to environmental degradation. Field welding repair is used to restore the degraded weld’s performance where a controlled temper-bead welding technique is commonly used to temper the freshly formed martensite during welding. However, knowledge of weld repairability is limited and experimental trial and error optimization to achieve desired microstructure and joint properties is expensive and time-consuming. Many existing computational models, e.g., finite element models, are limited to solving heat conduction equation and ignoring convective heat transfer due to molten metal flow. These models can result in over-prediction of peak temperatures of weld pool and heat-affected zone (HAZ), which in turn can affect the accuracy of tempering prediction. Moreover, these finite element models require an input of the deposit profiles in advance and thus limits the usability of these models. Here, a molten pool-based, multi-pass multi-layer model has been developed based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach with the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method. The model calculates the bead formation, thereby eliminating the need for pre-determined bead profiles required by finite element models. For computational efficiency, a coordinate system attached to the moving heat source is utilized. A subroutine is developed to convert the temperature profiles in the reference frame stationary to the heat source to that stationary to the workpiece. The converted thermal cycles are then imported into a microstructure model to compute the tempering kinetics and resultant hardness using a Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK), and modified Grange-Baughman parameter. The modeling approach is first developed and validated on single- and multi-pass deposition of stainless steel filler metal onto a SA-533 high strength steel substrate. The models are then applied to a multi-pass V-groove repair weld of Grade 91 steel plate as well as directed energy deposition of Grade 92 steel. Non-destructive characterization of microstructures was performed on Grade 91 and 92 steel welds. Two welding processes, cold metal transfer (CMT) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), were investigated for the Grade 91 steel weld samples. For the Grade 92 weld samples, three different heat inputs (low, medium, and high) of gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) were utilized to replicate traditional field welding processes. The non-destructive evaluation (NDE) method used for this research was immersion ultrasonic testing (UT) using a micro-resolution ultrasonic imaging methodology specifically designed to operate in the through-transmission configuration operating at 20 MHz of frequency. The system used a focused ultrasonic beam spot size diameter between 250-300 μm, and a 6 μm laser vibrometer spot size for detection, to produce highly defined images with longitudinal and mode-converted shear waves. From the micro-resolution ultrasonic C-scan images, three microstructural regions, i.e., weld metal (WM), HAZ, and base metal (BM), were clearly identifiable. Various levels of ultrasonic amplitudes distributed over the three regions were correlated with electron beam backscattered diffraction (EBSD) images using grain size, grain boundaries, and dislocation densities. The results showed that areas with relatively higher ultrasonic amplitude levels were associated with smaller grains and higher dislocation densities, while areas with lower amplitude levels were associated with larger grains and lower dislocation densities. In addition, ultrasonic velocity data obtained across the three different weld microstructural regions of Grade 91 test samples were correlated with optical metallographic images and hardness measurements. The results showed distinctive decreases in ultrasonic velocity and hardness over the HAZ region, where weld failures often occur during service.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2012

Quick-scanning x-ray absorption spectroscopy system with a servo-motor-driven channel-cut monochromator with a temporal resolution of 10 ms

We have developed a quick-scanning x-ray absorption fine structure (QXAFS) system and installed it at the recently constructed synchrotron radiation beamline BL33XU at the SPring-8. Rapid acquisition of high-quality QXAFS data was realized by combining a servo-motor-driven Si channel-cut monochromator with a tapered undulator. Two tandemly aligned monochromators with channel-cut Si(111) and Si(220) crystals covered energy ranges of 4.0-28.2 keV and 6.6-46.0 keV, respectively. The system allows the users to adjust instantly the energy ranges of scans, the starting angles of oscillations, and the frequencies. The channel-cut crystals are cooled with liquid nitrogen to enable them to withstand the high heat load from the undulator radiation. Deformation of the reflecting planes is reduced by clamping each crystal with two cooling blocks. Performance tests at the Cu K-edge demonstrated sufficiently high data quality for x-ray absorption near-edge structure and extended x-ray absorption fine-structure analyses with temporal resolutions of up to 10 and 25 ms, respectively.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
NASA NTRS1982

EMR Gage Would Measure Coal Thickness Accurately

Laboratory tests indicate electron magnetic resonance (EMR) would be effective in measuring thickness of coal overlying rock substrate. In prototype dual-frequency EMR system, Sample is irradiated by two radio frequencies. Signals are mixed, producing sum and difference output frequencies that are detected by receiver. Magnetic field is varied to scan resonant spot through sample. In system designed for field use, electromagnet is U-shaped, so that sample can be adjacent to, rather than inside the probe. Same coil is used for transmitting and receiving.

King, J. D.↗
NASA NTRS1980

SMMR Simulator radiative transfer calibration model. 2: Algorithm development

Passive microwave measurements performed from Earth orbit can be used to provide global data on a wide range of geophysical and meteorological phenomena. A Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) is being flown on the Nimbus-G satellite. The SMMR Simulator duplicates the frequency bands utilized in the spacecraft instruments through an amalgamate of radiometer systems. The algorithm developed utilizes data from the fall 1978 NASA CV-990 Nimbus-G underflight test series and subsequent laboratory testing.

Link, S.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Measurement of Impulsive Thrust from a Closed Radio Frequency Cavity in Vacuum

A vacuum test campaign evaluating the impulsive thrust performance of a tapered RF test article excited in the TM212 mode at 1,937 megahertz (MHz) has been completed. The test campaign consisted of a forward thrust phase and reverse thrust phase at less than 8 x 10(exp -6) Torr vacuum with power scans at 40 watts, 60 watts, and 80 watts. The test campaign included a null thrust test effort to identify any mundane sources of impulsive thrust, however none were identified. Thrust data from forward, reverse, and null suggests that the system is consistently performing with a thrust to power ratio of 1.2 +/- 0.1 mN/kW.

White, Harold↗
DOE OSTI2018

Development of nano-Y2O3 dispersed Zr alloys synthesized by mechanical alloying and consolidated by pulse plasma sintering

Highlights: • Zr-Fe-Cr-Cu-Ti-1.0wt% nano-Y{sub 2}O{sub 3} dispersed alloys are fabricated by mechanical alloying and pulse plasma sintering. • These alloys record extremely high compressive strength, Young’s modulus, and hardness. • These mechanical properties are superior as compared to other commercially available Zr based alloys. • Dispersion of nanometric FeZr{sub 2}, Y{sub 2}Ti{sub 2}O{sub 7}, Fe{sub 2}Ti, ZrCu, Cr{sub 2}Zr, Y{sub 2}O{sub 3} leads to grain boundary pinning at elevated temperature. - Abstract: In this paper, Zr alloys are synthesized with nominal compositions: 50Zr-30Fe-10Cr-5Cu-5Ti (alloy A), and 49Zr-30Fe-10Cr-5Cu-5Ti-1Y{sub 2}O{sub 3} (alloy B), 45Zr-30Fe-10Cr-10Cu-5Ti (alloy C), 44Zr-30Fe-10Cr-10Cu-5Ti-1Y{sub 2}O{sub 3} (alloy D) (all in wt%) by mechanical alloying and consolidated by pulse plasma sintering at 1173 K (900 °C), 1223 K (950 °C) and 1273 K (1000 °C) using 75 MPa uniaxial pressure applied for 5 min and 70 kA pulsed current at 3 Hz pulse frequency. The microstructure and phase evolution during mechanical alloying and sintering has been characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM & TEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Mechanical properties i.e. hardness and compressive strength were determined by using nano-indentation unit and universal testing machine. The produced alloys recorded very high levels of compressive strength (1359–2456 MPa), and hardness (7.05–10.05 GPa) which measures 1.5–2.0 times more than that of other Zr alloys (2 O{sub 3}) particles which can contribute to grain boundary pinning, and improved creep and oxidation resistance at elevated temperature.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2019

Low-Cost, Efficient and Durable High Temperature Wireless Sensors by Direct Write Additive Manufacturing for Application in Fossil Energy Systems

In-situ monitoring of physical parameters in fossil energy (FE) systems is challenging because of their high operating temperatures and oxidizing environments. This research aims utilize Aerosol Jet (AJ) nanoparticle printing, an advanced additive manufacturing method, to fabricate high temperature sensors for FE applications. Sensor films were fabricated by the AJ printing method with an excellent control over film microstructure and properties, in addition to creating less waste. Printing of six different materials, namely, silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), nickel-chromium (NiCr) alloy, copper (Cu), copper-nickel (CuNi), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was carried out for their evaluation of as sensor films. The films were then characterized using impedance spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Film microstructure was correlated with the sensor electrical and mechanical behavior at different temperatures (24-500 °C) and frequencies (0.02 - 300 kHz). This knowledge was then used to fabricate, test, and characterize strain and temperature sensors for high temperature applications. The strain sensors were shown to have a very low thermal strain up to 500 °C and a 57% higher gauge factor compared to the commercially available counterparts. This enhance performance was attributed to the inherent porosity in the sensor films that allowed the films to exhibit a metamaterial-like behavior when deformed. The AJ printed temperature sensors were shown to have the highest Seebeck coefficient amongst all the film-based temperature sensors. In addition, fundamental aspects of crystal structure and phase transformations in Ba(Fe0.7Ta0.3)O3-δ (BFTO), a high temperature sensor material, was investigated along with 3D printed antennas that can transmit sensor signals at high temperatures. Two PhD students, one from first generation college-going underrepresented minority community (URM), two postdoctoral fellows, and several masters and undergraduate students were supported by this award. This work opens up the possibility of realizing low-cost high-performance sensor devices using advanced manufacturing techniques for high temperature FE applications.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗