Lunar resources - Their value in lunar and planetary exploration
Nature and extraction of lunar resources for use in increasing economy of manned lunar and planetary exploration
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Future space development scenarios: Environmental considerations
The formation of positive attitudes and values concerning the environment of space, as the basis for assuming a wise stewardship role, is becoming increasingly important as many nations begin their journeys into space. A strong emphasis should be placed on fostering an international space environmental ethics. The object of environmental assessment and management in space should be to define what interplanetary regulatory procedures are needed to avoid unnecessary environmental damage and to monitor the effectiveness of such avoidance. The first requirement for research is to narrow the field of concern to areas where there could be an increased scale of development in space in the immediate future. Research needs to be focused on methodologies for defining the environmental systems involved (e.g., the lunar surface) and then recognizing key variables in the system that are fragile and need to be respected. Criteria for environmental quality should emerge which identify, in the case of lunar surface, how much mining activity can be safely undertaken and what quantity of exhaust gases can be released over a given period of time. Only then will humans be most able to evaluate the likely consequences of ventures into space.
Tangum, Richard↗
Granular Material Flows with Interstitial Fluid Effects
The research focused on experimental measurements of the rheological properties of liquid-solid and granular flows. In these flows, the viscous effects of the interstitial fluid, the inertia of the fluid and particles, and the collisional interactions of the particles may all contribute to the flow mechanics. These multiphase flows include industrial problems such as coal slurry pipelines, hydraulic fracturing processes, fluidized beds, mining and milling operation, abrasive water jet machining, and polishing and surface erosion technologies. In addition, there are a wide range of geophysical flows such as debris flows, landslides and sediment transport. In extraterrestrial applications, the study of transport of particulate materials is fundamental to the mining and processing of lunar and Martian soils and the transport of atmospheric dust (National Research Council 2000). The recent images from Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft dramatically depict the complex sand and dust flows on Mars, including dune formation and dust avalanches on the slip-face of dune surfaces. These Aeolian features involve a complex interaction of the prevailing winds and deposition or erosion of the sediment layer; these features make a good test bed for the verification of global circulation models of the Martian atmosphere.
Hunt, Melany L.↗
Energy for lunar resource exploitation
Humanity stands at the threshold of exploiting the known lunar resources that have opened up with the access to space. America's role in the future exploitation of space, and specifically of lunar resources, may well determine the level of achievement in technology development and global economic competition. Space activities during the coming decades will significantly influence the events on Earth. The 'shifting of history's tectonic plates' is a process that will be hastened by the increasingly insistent demands for higher living standards of the exponentially growing global population. Key to the achievement of a peaceful world in the 21st century, will be the development of a mix of energy resources at a societally acceptable and affordable cost within a realistic planning horizon. This must be the theme for the globally applicable energy sources that are compatible with the Earth's ecology. It is in this context that lunar resources development should be a primary goal for science missions to the Moon, and for establishing an expanding human presence. The economic viability and commercial business potential of mining, extracting, manufacturing, and transporting lunar resource based materials to Earth, Earth orbits, and to undertake macroengineering projects on the Moon remains to be demonstrated. These extensive activities will be supportive of the realization of the potential of space energy sources for use on Earth. These may include generating electricity for use on Earth based on beaming power from Earth orbits and from the Moon to the Earth, and for the production of helium 3 as a fuel for advanced fusion reactors.
Glaser, Peter E.↗
Kinetics of hydrogen release from lunar soil
With increasing interest in a lunar base, there is a need for extensive examination of possible lunar resources. Hydrogen will be needed on a lunar base for many activities including providing fuel, making water, and serving as a reducing agent in the extraction of oxygen from its ores. Previous studies have shown the solar wind has implanted hydrogen in the lunar regolith and that hydrogen is present not only in the outer layer of soil but to considerable depths, depending on the sampling site. If this hydrogen is to be mined and used on the lunar surface, a number of questions need to be answered. How much energy must be expended in order to release the hydrogen from the soil. What temperatures must be attained, and how long must the soil be heated. This study was undertaken to provide answers to practical questions such as these. Hydrogen was determined using a Pyrolysis/GC technique in which hydrogen was released by heating the soil sample contained in a quartz tube in a resistance wire furnace, followed by separation and quantitative determination using a gas chromatograph with a helium ionization detector. Heating times and temperatures were varied, and particle separates were studied in addition to bulk soils. The typical sample size was 10 mg of lunar soil. All of the soils used were mature soils with similar hydrogen abundances. Pre-treatments with air and steam were used in an effort to find a more efficient way of releasing hydrogen.
Bustin, Roberta↗
Getting lunar ilmenite - From soils or rocks?
Lunar soils or rocks can be mined as sources of ilmenite for producing oxygen. However, separable crystals of loose ilmenite in lunar soils are rare (less than 2 percent) and small (less than 200 microns); most ilmenite in the regolith is locked together with silicate minerals as rock fragments. If fragmentation of rock sources must be attempted to win appreciable amounts of ilmenite (approximately 10 percent or more), selective collection of high-Ti basalt fragments larger than 1 cm for fragmentation and ilmenite beneficiation may be advantageous over extensive processing of fine lunar soil. Many alternative processing schemes for fragmenting rocks on the Moon have been proposed; one process which was tested early in the Apollo program successfully disaggregated lunar and terrestrial basalts by passive exposure to low-pressure alkali (K) vapor. This process is worthy of reinvestigation.
Vaniman, D. T.↗
Robotic Subsurface Analyzer and Sample Handler for Resource Reconnaissance and Preliminary Site Assessment for ISRU Activities at the Lunar Cold Traps
Since the 1960s, claims have been made that water ice deposits should exist in permanently shadowed craters near both lunar poles. Recent interpretations of data from the Lunar Prospector-Neutron Spectrometer (LP- NS) confirm that significant concentrations of hydrogen exist, probably in the form of water ice, in the permanently shadowed polar cold traps. Yet, due to the large spatial resolution (45-60 Ian) of the LP-NS measurements relative to these shadowed craters (approx.5-25 km), these data offer little certainty regarding the precise location, form or distribution of these deposits. Even less is known about how such deposits of water ice might effect lunar regolith physical properties relevant to mining, excavation, water extraction and construction. These uncertainties will need to be addressed in order to validate fundamental lunar In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) precepts by 2011. Given the importance of the in situ utilization of water and other resources to the future of space exploration a need arises for the advanced deployment of a robotic and reconfigurable system for physical properties and resource reconnaissance. Based on a collection of high-TRL. designs, the Subsurface Analyzer and Sample Handler (SASH) addresses these needs, particularly determining the location and form of water ice and the physical properties of regolith. SASH would be capable of: (1) subsurface access via drilling, on the order of 3-10 meters into both competent targets (ice, rock) and regolith, (2) down-hole analysis through drill string embedded instrumentation and sensors (Neutron Spectrometer and Microscopic Imager), enabling water ice identification and physical properties measurements; (3) core and unconsolidated sample acquisition from rock and regolith; (4) sample handling and processing, with minimized contamination, sample containerization and delivery to a modular instrument payload. This system would be designed with three mission enabling goals, including: (1) a self-contained, low power, low mass, "black box'' configuration for operations from a lander, various classes of rovers or a surface-based platform with human assistance or robotic anchoring mechanisms; (2) reconfigurable and scalable sample handling for delivery to various types of instrumentation, depending on mission requirements; and (3) the use of advanced automation control and diagnostic techniques that will afford local human deployed, remote teleoperation and fully autonomous intelligent operations. Though a great deal of technology has been advanced toward these objectives, the SASH system faces significant design challenges, including the low gravity environment, various levels of autonomy in operations, radiation exposure, dust contamination, and temperature extremes and deltas. Significant input from the scientific and engineering communities, as well as a significant environmental testing program, will be required to guide the design process.
Gorevan, S. P.↗
Lunar resource recovery: A definition of requirements
The capability to locate, mine, and process the natural resources of the Moon will be an essential requirement for lunar base development and operation. The list of materials that will be necessary is extensive and ranges from oxygen and hydrogen for fuel and life support to process tailings for emplacement over habitats. Despite the resources need, little is known about methodologies that might be suitable for utilizing lunar resources. This paper examines some of the requirements and constraints for resource recovery and identifies key areas of research needed to locate, mine, and process extraterrestrial natural resources.
Elsworth, D.↗
Lunar Polar In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) as a Stepping Stone for Human Exploration
A major emphasis of NASA is to extend and expand human exploration across the solar system. While specific destinations are still being discussed as to what comes first, it is imperative that NASA create new technologies and approaches that make space exploration affordable and sustainable. Critical to achieving affordable and sustainable exploration beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) are the development of technologies and approaches for advanced robotics, power, propulsion, habitats, life support, and especially, space resource utilization systems. Space resources and how to use them, often called In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), can have a tremendous beneficial impact on robotic and human exploration of the Moon, Mars, Phobos, and Near Earth Objects (NEOs), while at the same time helping to solve terrestrial challenges and enabling commercial space activities. The search for lunar resources, demonstration of extraterrestrial mining, and the utilization of resource-derived products, especially from polar volatiles, can be a stepping stone for subsequent human exploration missions to other destinations of interest due to the proximity of the Moon, complimentary environments and resources, and the demonstration of critical technologies, processes, and operations. ISRU and the Moon: There are four main areas of development interest with respect to finding, obtaining, extracting, and using space resources: Prospecting for resources, Production of mission critical consumables like propellants and life support gases, Civil engineering and construction, and Energy production, storage, and transfer. The search for potential resources and the production of mission critical consumables are the primary focus of current NASA technology and system development activities since they provide the greatest initial reduction in mission mass, cost, and risk. Because of the proximity of the Moon, understanding lunar resources and developing, demonstrating, and implementing lunar ISRU provides a near and early opportunity to perform the following that are applicable to other human exploration mission destinations: Identify and characterize resources, how they are distributed, and the material, location and environment in which they are found; Demonstrate concepts, technologies, and hardware that can reduce the cost and risk of human exploration beyond Earth orbit; Use the Moon for operation experience and mission validation for much longer missions that are farther from Earth Develop and evolve ISRU to support sustained, economical human presence beyond Earth's orbit, including promoting space commercialization As Table 1 depicts, the Moon provides environments and resources applicable to Mars and NEOs. Two lunar ISRU resource and product pathways that have notable synergism with NEO, Phobos/Demos, and Mars ISRU are oxygen/metal extraction from regolith, and water/volatile extraction from lunar polar materials. To minimize the risk of developing and incorporating ISRU into human missions, a phased implementation plan is recommended that starts with prospecting and demonstrating critical technologies on robotic and human missions, then performing pilot scale operations (in non-mission critical roles) to enhance exploration mission capabilities, leading to full utilization of space resources in mission critical roles. Which lunar ISRU pathway is followed will depend on the results of early resource prospecting/proof-ofconcept mission(s), and long-term human exploration plans.
Sanders, Gerald B.↗
Astronomy on the Moon: Geological considerations
The Moon is an excellent site for astronomical observations. This paper describes two geological aspects related to astronomy from the Moon. First it evaluates the sources of gases near a lunar base as input to calculations reported in a separate paper on the growth of an artificial lunar atmosphere. The results suggest that mining for He-3 could produce the most gas (1 kg/sec), but rocket exhaust (0.1 kg/sec) and habitat venting (0.5 kg/sec) are also important. Second, the paper discusses criteria that need to be considered when determining the site of a lunar astronomical facility. These are longitude and latitude (equatorial sites are favored), topography (important to be relatively flat for ease of installation), distance from a lunar base (to be free of seismic noise, dust, and gases), the site's value to lunar geoscience (other factors being equal, a geologically diverse site is better), and its value as a materials resource (mining and observatories are incompatible).
Taylor, G. Jeffrey↗
Power requirements for mining and microwave processing of extraterrestrial resources
Research in progress on the use of nuclear power in mining the Martian moons for volatiles and hydrocarbons as well as to power microwave generators for processing both lunar regolith and the spoils from the Martian mines into building materials is described. Previous work on mining the Martian moons developed estimates for the costs and power requirements for extracting and shipping any volatiles that might be found on Phobos and Diemos. The costs were compared to the cost of shipping the same volatiles from Earth and it was found that the mining operation would break even for launch costs from Earth as low as ninety dollars per pound (198 dollars/kg). Above this figure the mines would generate a profit. Based on the results of recent work on the microwave processing of lunar regolith it was decided to refine the concept description. Work under way and to be reported deals with a better definition of the power required for mine operations, nuclear propulsion, and microwave materials processing.
Raymond S. Leonard↗
Human Lunar Destiny: Past, Present, and Future
This paper offers conceptual strategy and rationale for returning astronauts to the moon. NASA's historic Apollo program enabled humans to make the first expeditionary voyages to the moon and to gather and return samples back to the earth for further study. To continue exploration of the moon within the next ten to fifteen years, one possible mission concept for returning astronauts using existing launch vehicle infrastructure is presented. During these early lunar missions, expeditionary trips are made to geographical destinations and permanent outposts are established at the lunar south pole. As these missions continue, mining operations begin in an effort to learn how to live off the land. Over time, a burgeoning economy based on mining and scientific activity emerges with the formation of more accommodating settlements and surface infrastructure assets. As lunar activity advances, surface infrastructure assets grow and become more complex, lunar settlements and outposts are established across the globe, travel to and from the moon becomes common place, and commerce between earth and the moon develops and flourishes. Colonization and development of the moon is completed with the construction of underground cities and the establishment of a full range of political, religious, educational, and recreational institutions with a diverse population from all nations of the world. Finally, rationale for diversifying concentrations of humanity throughout earth's neighborhood and the greater solar system is presented.
Fletcher, David↗
Recovery and Utilization of Extraterrestrial Resources
This special bibliography includes the extraction, processing, and utilization of lunar, planetary, and asteroid resources; mining and excavation equipment, oxygen and propellant production; and in situ resource utilization.
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Report of NASA Lunar Energy Enterprise Case Study Task Force
The Lunar Energy Enterprise Case Study Task Force was asked to determine the economic viability and commercial potential of mining and extracting He-3 from the lunar soil, and transporting the material to Earth for use in a power-generating fusion reactor. Two other space energy projects, the Space Power Station (SPS) and the Lunar Power Station (LPS), were also reviewed because of several interrelated aspects of these projects. The specific findings of the Task Force are presented. Appendices contain related papers generated by individual Task Force Members.
Kearney, John J.↗
Report of the NASA lunar energy enterprise case study task force
The Lunar Energy Enterprise Cast Study Task Force was formed to determine the economic viability and commercial business potential of mining and extracting He-3 from the lunar soil for use in earth-based fusion reactors. In addition, the Solar Power Satellite (SPS) and the Lunar Power Station (LPS) were also evaluated because they involve the use of lunar materials and could provide energy for lunar-based activities. The Task Force considered: (1) the legal and liability aspects of the space energy projects; (2) the long-range terrestrial energy needs and options; (3) the technical maturity of the three space energy projects; and (4) their commercial potential. The use of electricity is expected to increase, but emerging environmental concerns and resource availability suggest changes for the national energy policy. All three options have the potential to provide a nearly inexhaustible, clean source of electricity for the U.S. and worldwide, without major adverse impacts on the Earth's environment. Assumption by industry of the total responsibility for these energy projects is not yet possible. Pursuit of these energy concepts requires the combined efforts of government and industry. The report identifies key steps necessary for the development of these concepts and an evolving industrial role.
Source record↗
Development of an Adaptive Droop Control Method for Interconnected Lunar DC Microgrids Using Power Hardware-in-the-Loop
NASA’s Artemis Program outlines the need for a habitat capable of sustaining human life as well as mining and producing raw materials on the lunar surface. This mission is viewed as a means towards deeper space exploration, with plans for reaching Mars and beyond. Human presence on the moon is not possible without the ability to generate and distribute energy, namely electricity, through a network of energy sources, loads, and power converters called a microgrid. Multiple microgrids can be deployed on the moon based on location and need. Separate microgrids will require interconnection to increase resiliency and reliability given the mission’s high criticality. A method for adaptive control over power converters connecting two dc microgrids is proposed. A simulation is modeled after the lunar power system with two approaches to power converter droop control, allowing for a more flexible and adaptive microgrid architecture. Further experiments are conducted using the control methods in a power hardware-in-the-loop test environment to study the performance of hardware converter control used in this application.
dc microgrid↗
The initial lunar supply base
The first lunar supply base should have a mass less than 1000 tons, be deployed by 24 persons in 4 months, and be maintained by 10 persons. Output could be expanded 20 times in 5 years to 600,000 tons/yr by a factor of 10 expansion of the area of the solar array on the lunar surface, using low power soil beneficiation, increasing the fleet of mining vehicles, and illuminating the base continuously at night with lunar orbiting mirrors. The space manufacturing facility (SMF) will supply most of the mass (solar cells and orbiting mirrors) necessary for expansion. Several devices and procedures are suggested for development which could further reduce the total mass necessary to transport to the Moon to establish the initial lunar supply base.
Criswell, D.↗
VIPER – Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover: Mission Overview
VIPER is a low cost, lunar volatiles detection and measurement mission that will be delivered to the lunar south pole by one of NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services partners and will characterize the nature of the volatiles in the area and extrapolate this data to create global lunar water resource maps. It will be the first mining expedition on another world while simultaneously addressing fundamental planetary science questions. Prospecting for lunar water at the poles is the next step in understanding the resource potential and addressing key theories about water emplacement and retention. It now appears that potentially economically significant amounts of water ice exists at the poles of the Moon, however, the distribution of this water is still not understood at a level sufficient to fully evaluate economic models. The water ice (and other potential volatiles), the “ore body”, needs to be understood at the scales of 10s to 100s of meters to evaluate localization, extraction and processing techniques. To accomplish this, VIPER will survey permanently-shadowed regions, semi-permanent shadowed regions, and even semi and full sunlit areas in order to have a comprehensive survey of polar region volatiles, to best inform future mission architectures. In order to characterize the volatiles, a payload suite consisting of a neutron spectrometer, mass spectrometer, near infrared spectrometer and a 1-meter drill will be hosted on the VIPER mobile lunar rover platform. Since VIPER is a relatively low cost, schedule-constrained, risk-tolerant mission, there are architectural limitations that require unique mission planning constraints to enable exploration of the lunar south pole region. These regions offer unique challenges such as uncertain terrain conditions, rock and crater hazards, lunar dust, multipath communications effects, extreme thermal environments and multiple overlapping planning constraints. Mission design/traverse planning, system design capabilities and mission operations are all highly linked through initial development phases. We will describe the current mission overview and the unique approaches taken by the VIPER project based on our programmatic framework and unique mission environment.
VIPER↗