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Results for “oxygen evolution reaction catalyst activity”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 127 records · Page 7
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Lewis Acid Site Assisted Bifunctional Activity of Tin Doped Gallium Oxide and Its Application in Rechargeable Zn‐Air Batteries

The enhanced safety, superior energy, and power density of rechargeable metal‐air batteries make them ideal energy storage systems for application in energy grids and electric vehicles. However, the absence of a cost‐effective and stable bifunctional catalyst that can replace expensive platinum (Pt)‐based catalyst to promote oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at the air cathode hinders their broader adaptation. Here, in this work, it is demonstrated that Tin (Sn) doped β‐gallium oxide (β‐Ga 2 O 3 ) in the bulk form can efficiently catalyze ORR and OER and, hence, be applied as the cathode in Zn‐air batteries. The Sn‐doped β‐Ga 2 O 3 sample with 15% Sn (Sn x =0.15 ‐Ga 2 O 3 ) displayed exceptional catalytic activity for a bulk, non‐noble metal‐based catalyst. When used as a cathode, the excellent electrocatalytic bifunctional activity of Sn x =0.15 ‐Ga 2 O 3 leads to a prototype Zn‐air battery with a high‐power density of 138 mW cm −2 and improved cycling stability compared to devices with benchmark Pt‐based cathode. The combined experimental and theoretical exploration revealed that the Lewis acid sites in β‐Ga 2 O 3 aid in regulating the electron density distribution on the Sn‐doped sites, optimize the adsorption energies of reaction intermediates, and facilitate the formation of critical reaction intermediate (O*), leading to enhanced electrocatalytic activity.

Lewis acid sites↗
DOE OSTI2022

Glassy Carbon Substrate Oxidation Effects on Electrode Stability for Oxygen Evolution Reaction Catalysis Stability Benchmarking

Employing benchmarking metrics to capture the activity and stability of electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in acid is a critical practice that enables meaningful comparison of catalyst material candidates reported throughout the literature. In this work, we find that ubiquitously used glassy carbon electrode substrates oxidize under typical OER operating conditions, forming a pacified, electrically insulating, and oxygen-rich surface layer that causes drastic loss of current density over the course of extended chronoamperometric stability tests at an anodic potential of 1.7 VRHE. We show that the experimentally observed stability of glassy carbon-based electrodes is approximately two orders of magnitude lower than that expected solely from dissolution-based catalyst intrinsic stability of Ir-based catalysts. We additionally find that glassy carbon-based electrode stability measured by chronoamperometric holds is greatly impacted by catalyst loading, with high catalyst loadings improving the stability of the overall electrode via a protective effect on the glassy carbon substrate. Altogether, our investigation highlights that glassy carbon is not electrochemically inert under OER conditions on the timescale of common stability tests, which can cause electrodes to exhibit performance losses that do not reflect the intrinsic stability of the actual catalyst material being investigated. In light of our findings, we underscore the usefulness of metrics, such as the S-number, to reflect intrinsic catalyst material stability.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Experimental Verification of Ir 5d Orbital States and Atomic Structures in Highly Active Amorphous Iridium Oxide Catalysts

In iridium oxide catalysts, the electronic states whose energies are in the range of energetics and charge transfer kinetics of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) originate from the Ir 5d orbital states. However, the understanding of the atomic structures and orbital states underlying catalytic reactivity in amorphous iridium oxide oxygen evolving catalysts (Ir-OECs) is incomplete compared to that of crystalline oxides, owing to a lack of direct experimental verification. Here, we present experimental approaches using resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) to directly access Ir 5d orbital excitations at the Ir L 3 edge and atomic pair distribution function (PDF) measurements to characterize electronic and coordination structures at the atomic scale. The so-called iridium blue layer (IrBL) and IrO x were formed from the organometallic precursor complex [Cp*Ir(H 2 O) 3 ]SO 4 and the inorganic precursor IrCl 3 , respectively. Ex situ IrBL and IrO x films for RIXS and PDF measurements were prepared by conditioning electrodeposited films at a low voltage. The incident energy RIXS profile of IrO x exhibited extra weak resonantly enhanced excitation below 2 eV energy loss. The feature was clearly different from a single high-energy excitation above 3 eV of IrBL related to the interband transition between π- and σ-antibonding states. The atomic structure refinement based on PDF measurements revealed the atomic structure domains to have edge- and corner-shared IrO 6 octahedra with trigonal-type distortion. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations guided by the refined atomic structures shed light on the electronic structure corresponding to experimental results, including insulating and metallic phases in ex situ IrBL and IrO x films, respectively. Our study establishes different Ir 5d orbital states and atomic structures in two amorphous Ir oxide OER catalysts in their reduction states.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Probing Activities of Individual Catalytic Nanoflakes by Tunneling Mode of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy

The tunneling mode of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) was developed recently and applied to studies of charge-transfer reactions at single metal nanoparticles (NPs). When an SECM tip is brought within the tunneling distance from a conductive NP, the particle begins to act as a part of the nanoelectrode. Herein, we demonstrate the possibility of using carbon nanoelectrodes with a very thin insulating sheath for electrochemical tunneling experiments at flat samples. In this way, electrocatalytic activity, conductivity, and charging properties of and faradaic processes in layered nanomaterials can be characterized by single-nanoflake voltammetry without making direct ohmic contact with them. A broad applicability of tunneling SECM experiments is demonstrated by probing nanomaterials with different size, geometry, and electrocatalytic properties, including metallic/pseudo-metallic (1T/1T') and semiconducting (2H) MoS 2 nanoflakes, N-doped porous carbon catalyst, and MXene nanosheets. Further, the Tafel plots for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at individual nanoflakes are compared to analogous measurements for an ensemble of flakes attached to the surface of a macroscopic electrode. Moreover, we observed variations in catalytic activities of individual MXene flakes toward HER and OER caused by non-uniform doping.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Energy catalysis needs ligands with high oxidative stability

Replacing fossil fuel-based energy by renewable sources is a transition that society needs to make to meet future energy demand and simultaneously address climate change. Coupling renewable energy sources with electrochemical catalysis provides a promising path to carbon-neutral fuels and chemicals when the necessary reducing equivalents and protons are harvested from water. Developing highly active, stable, and inexpensive electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is accordingly a centerpiece of a renewable energy portfolio. Whereas viable OER catalysts are heterogeneous in nature, owing to their oxidative stability, the realization of stable molecular OER catalysts greatly expands the horizon of energy science with the ability to tune OER energetics and mechanisms with fidelity. In this perspective, current challenges in the field of molecular OER catalysis are addressed with promising lines of research that are directed to designing ligands that can withstand the harsh oxidizing environment of OER.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Combined Rotating Disk Slurry Electrodeposition–Spontaneous Galvanic Displacement for Pt-M (M = Co, Ni, and Cu) Catalyst Synthesis for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Alkaline Media

Here, platinum-modified first-row transition-metal catalyst (M = Ni, Co, and Cu) nanoparticles on a carbon black Vulcan XC-72R (CBV) support were synthesized using rotating disk slurry electrodeposition (RoDSE) followed by spontaneous galvanic displacement (SGD) reactions. These RoDSE–SGD catalysts were evaluated for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in 0.1 M KOH using rotating disk electrode techniques. The Ni and Co RoDSEs were done by using an electrochemical applied potential of -0.75 V versus the RHE and for Cu, -0.80 V versus the RHE using a CBV slurry solution containing 0.1 M KClO 4 . These metal nanoparticles on CBV (M/CBV) catalysts were modified with a Pt precursor via a spontaneous galvanic displacement (SGD) reaction, producing a Pt-M/CBV material to catalyze the ORR in an alkaline medium. High-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (HR-STEM) analysis indicates that the PtM/CBV samples include M clusters and Pt single atoms. The ORR characterization measurements were done under a controlled temperature (25.0 °C) and with a mass loading of 100 μg/cm 2 on a glassy carbon (GC) rotating disk electrode at 1600 rpm. The PtCo/CBV showed the highest ORR mass activity of 0.741 A/mgPt at 0.90 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) compared with commercial Pt/CBV. The M/CBV RoDSE catalysts were also tested for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER), and Ni/CBV provided the lowest overpotential of 450 mV at 10 mA/cm 2 disk in 0.1 M KOH.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2026

Metal Foam Morphology Affects the Run to Run Reproducibility of OER Using Nickel Catalysts

Nickel (Ni) foam-based electrodes are excellent catalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction; however, we found that the random pore-size distribution of Ni foams contributes to a significant variability in electrochemically active surface area, compromising experimental reproducibility. We provide insights into quantifying this critical material property, verified by four electrochemical laboratories.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dynamics of precatalyst conversion and iron incorporation in nickel-based alkaline oxygen evolution reaction catalysts

The efficiency of alkaline water electrolyzers is limited by the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). The design of improved OER catalysts requires understanding of material changes induced by the electrolyte under oxidizing potentials. We compare four Ni-based thin-film precatalysts—Ni, NiO, Ni(OH) 2 , and NiS x —in 0.1 M KOH with and without Fe impurities. Precatalyst conversion to the active oxyhydroxide catalysts and their OER performance are induced and followed using cyclic voltammetry. Without Fe electrolyte impurities, the precatalysts convert at different rates to a similar, modestly active NiOOH catalyst. Added Fe impurities are incorporated concurrently with the oxyhydroxide formation leading to active Ni 1-x Fe x OOH catalysts. The NiS x and Ni(OH) 2 precatalysts rapidly convert to oxyhydroxides both with and without Fe, while conversion of Ni and especially NiO is slowed down by Fe impurities. Choice of the precatalyst and presence of Fe impurities are key factors in designing active Ni 1-x Fe x OOH OER catalysts for electrolyzers.

alkaline electrolysis↗
DOE OSTI2022

Carbon-Nanotube-Bridging Strategy for Integrating Single Fe Atoms and NiCo Nanoparticles in a Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalyst toward High-Efficiency and Long-Life Rechargeable Zinc–Air Batteries

The development of highly efficient and robust bifunctional electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction (ORR) and evolution reactions (OER) is the key issue for realizing high-performance and long-life rechargeable zinc–air batteries (ZABs). However, it is still a great challenge to integrate independent ORR and OER sites in a catalyst with high activity. Here, a carbon nanotube-bridging strategy is proposed to synthesize such a bifunctional oxygen electrocatalyst enriched with highly active single-atom Fe sites for the ORR and high-performance nanosized NiCo hydroxides for the OER. Consequently, the developed catalyst shows a small overpotential difference of 0.686 V. When used as an oxygen electrode catalyst, the corresponding ZAB exhibits a large power density of 219.5 mW cm ₋2 , a small charge–discharge voltage gap of 0.72 V at 10 mA cm ₋2 , and outstanding discharge–charge durability without attenuation after more than 700 cycles. This work proposes a new idea to realize multifunctional catalysts and drives the practical application of ZABs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Complete Phase Transformation of Ir Nanowire Network into Defect-Rich Oxide Catalyst for High-Performance PEM Water Electrolysis

Iridium-based catalysts remain the most reliable option for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers (PEMWEs). However, their high cost and limited performance represent critical barriers to the commercialization of this green hydrogen production technology. Herein, we report the creation of a metallic Ir nanowire network (IrNWN), which exhibits superior OER performance through its in-situ transition into an oxide structure with high intrinsic activity. At a low loading of 0.25 mgIr/cm2 in PEMWEs, IrNWN achieved a current density of 3.13 A/cm2 at a cell voltage of 1.8 V, outperforming the commercial Ir-based catalyst and surpassing the Department of Energy (DOE) 2026 technical target. Moreover, the high activity of IrNWN was maintained for 900 hours in a durability test at 2 A/cm2, showing a low degradation rate of 0.042 mV/hour. Structural analysis of the electrochemically oxidized IrNWN revealed the presence of mixed Ir oxidation states and a high density of surface terminal oxygen groups (μ1-O), which contributed to a reduced energy barrier for the rate-determining O-O coupling step.

oxygen evolution reaction↗
DOE OSTI2021

Dual active site tandem catalysis of metal hydroxyl oxides and single atoms for boosting oxygen evolution reaction

We report the high voltage in oxygen evolution reaction (OER) often causes structural change in electrocatalysts and forms multiple active sites. Therefore, exploring the synergy of various active sites is extremely significant to develop catalysts for OER with multiple elementary steps. Herein, we adopt the physically adsorbed metal ions method to successfully synthesize a highly-efficient electrocatalyst containing the dual active sites of Fe-NiOOH and NiC4 single atoms (marked as Ni SAs/Fe-NiOOH). The Ni SAs/Fe-NiOOH displays outstanding OER performance with an overpotential of 269 mV to deliver current density of 10 mA/cm 2 that shows 55 mV superior to commercial IrO 2 /CB at the same condition. Experiments and density functional theory calculations indicate that the excellent OER activity of Ni SAs/Fe-NiOOH catalyst is attributed to the synergy of dual active sites of NiC 4 SAs and Fe-NiOOH. A tandem catalysis mechanism is also proposed to reveal the synergism of two active centers, which makes the potential-determining step more facile and accordingly decreases the OER overpotential. This work offers a new concept of tandem catalysis to develop the electrocatalysts with many elemental steps, like OER and oxygen reduction reaction catalysts.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Theoretical Prediction and Experimental Verification of IrO x Supported on Titanium Nitride for Acidic Oxygen Evolution Reaction

Reducing iridium (Ir) catalyst loading for acidic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is a critical strategy for large-scale hydrogen production via proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis. However, simultaneously achieving high activity, long-term stability, and reduced material cost remains challenging. To address this challenge, we develop a frame-work by combining density functional theory (DFT) prediction using model surfaces and proof-of-concept experimental ver-ification using thin films and nanoparticles. DFT results predict that oxidized Ir monolayers over titanium nitride (IrO x /TiN) should display higher OER activity than IrO x while reducing Ir loading. Further, this prediction is verified by depositing Ir monolayers over TiN thin films via physical vapor deposition. The promising thin film results are then extended to commercially viable powder IrO x /TiN catalysts, which demonstrate a lower overpotential and higher mass activity than commercial IrO 2 , and a long-term stability of 250 hours to maintain a current density of 10 mA cm -2 . The superior OER performance of IrO x /TiN is further confirmed using proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer (PEMWE), which shows a lower cell voltage than commercial IrO 2 to achieve a current density of 1 A cm -2 . Both DFT and in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy reveal that the high OER performance of IrO x /TiN strongly depends on the IrO x - TiN interaction via direct Ir-Ti bonding. This study highlights the importance of close interaction between theoretical prediction based on mechanistic understanding and experimental verification based on thin film model catalysts to facilitate the development of more practical powder IrO x /TiN catalysts with high activity and stability for acidic OER.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2021

High Performance non-PGM Transition Metal Oxide ORR Catalysts of PEMFCs

This project was designed to develop acid-stable PGM-free transition metal oxide oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) electrocatalysts to meet or exceed the performance and durability of the DOE 2020 Technical Targets for platinum-group metal (PGM) free electrocatalysts from first-principles to incorporation into membrane-electrode assemblies (MEAs) for polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The planned project was to accomplish this goal with a multi-step approach: 1) materials modeling and experimental screening to identify acid-stable oxides with high ORR activity, 2) optimization of catalyst particle size and catalyst/carbon/ionomer catalyst layer composition, 3) fabrication of MEAs for performance and durability testing. During the course of this project: 1) acid-stability descriptors were developed for manganese oxides; 2) a family of acid-stable multicomponent oxides based on antimony were developed; 3) a flexible synthesis for the formation of nanocrystalline nonstoichiometric oxides was developed; 4) limited ORR activity but modest and improving oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity was measured for multicomponent antimony oxides. The project was programmed into five technical tasks: The development of acid-stable ORR electrocatalytic oxides through 1) identification and optimization of acid-stable oxide compositions, and 2) electrochemical characterization; 3) optimization of catalyst layer composition for MEAs using identified ORR electrocatalysts; 4) MEA fabrication and performance testing to result in performance of 44 mA-cm-2 at 0.9 V vs. RHE; and 5) accelerated-stress testing of optimized MEAs. Because no acid-stable oxide was identified with the requisite activity for ORR (4.4 µA-cm-2oxide intrinsic activity at 0.9 V vs. RHE) within the time and budget allotted in Tasks 1 and 2, the project was halted at the end of phase 1, with no activity in Tasks 3-5. The research output, while not succeeding in developing ORR electrocatalysts, advanced the development of acid-stable oxide materials, showing potential for further improvement as OER electrocatalysts.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Surface Engineering Strategy to Synthesize Bicomponent Carbons for Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries

Atomic Fe-N x moieties and nanosized FeCo species anchored on carbons have each been demonstrated to be among the most effective active components for oxygen reduction and evolution reactions (ORR/OER), respectively in rechargeable zinc -air batteries (ZABs). However, incorporating both of these components in a single catalyst presents a great challenge due to the trade-off in formation between them during hightemperature preparation. Herein, we integrate them into a bicomponent carbon through a surface engineering strategy. In this process, K 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ] is engineered on the surface of a precursor mixture consisting of polyaniline-coated graphene oxide and ZIF-67. This is followed by pyrolysis to produce the bicomponent carbon catalyst of FeCo nanoparticles modified carbon polyhedron (for accelerating the OER), supported on atomically dispersed Fe -N -doped carbon nanosheet (for boosting the ORR). The catalyst exhibits a small potential gap of 0.69 V for OER/ORR. In situ Raman spectroscopy demonstrates that spinel FeCo oxides may be responsible for OER. The use of this catalyst in ZABs achieves high power densities of 225 mW cm -2 in aqueous electrolyte and 164 mW cm -2 in solid-state electrolyte. Additionally, a small and stable voltage gap of 0.712 V at 10 mA cm -2 is maintained after 1035 discharge -charge cycles demonstrating the great application potential in energy devices.

An, Jia-Xing↗
DOE OSTI2023

LTE-P-10 RDE

A standardized procedure for rotating disk electrode (RDE) experiments for the ex-situ characterization of oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts for PEM water electrolyzers. This protocol should allow for the analysis of onset potential, overpotential at a fixed current, catalytic activity, and electrochemical surface area of these catalysts.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Cutting-edge methods for amplifying the oxygen evolution reaction during seawater electrolysis: a brief synopsis

Electrochemical water splitting has been considered a clean and continual way for hydrogen (H 2 ) production. Direct seawater electrolysis is a potentially attractive technology due to the ample access to seawater and scarce freshwater resources in some regions. However, the presence of impurities (e.g., Cl - , Mg 2+ ) and the resulting corrosion and side reactions, such as the chloride oxidation reaction (ClOR), makes seawater electrocatalysis more challenging than that of fresh or alkaline water due to competition with the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at the anode. Consequently, much effort has been devoted to developing approaches to enhance OER performance and suppress the ClOR. In this minireview, we summarize three general strategies for enhancing OER activity and selectivity in seawater electrolysis based on three different concepts: (1) the sole development of robust and high-performance OER catalysts in pure seawater electrolytes, (2) the introduction of additives to seawater electrolytes (e.g., alkalis and/or salts without chloride) to enhance the potential equilibrium gap between the ClOR and OER in combination with regular highly active OER catalysts, and (3) a combination of approaches (1) and (2). Finally, the current challenges and potential opportunities for green H 2 production from seawater electrolysis are briefly presented.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Defect-Promoted Ni-Based Layer Double Hydroxides with Enhanced Deprotonation Capability for Efficient Biomass Electrooxidation

Ni-based hydroxides are promising electrocatalysts for biomass oxidation reactions, supplanting the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) due to lower overpotentials while producing value-added chemicals. The identification and subsequent engineering of their catalytically active sites are essential to facilitate these anodic reactions. Herein, the proportional relationship between catalysts’ deprotonation propensity and Faradic efficiency of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF)-to-2,5 furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA, FEFDCA) is revealed by thorough density functional theory (DFT) simulations and atomic-scale characterizations, including in situ synchrotron diffraction and spectroscopy methods. The deprotonation capability of ultrathin layer-double hydroxides (UT-LDHs) is regulated by tuning the covalency of metal (M)-oxygen (O) motifs through defect site engineering and selection of M 3+ co-chemistry. NiMn UT-LDHs show an ultrahigh FE FDCA of 99% at 1.37 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) and retain a high FE FDCA of 92.7% in the OER-operating window at 1.52 V, about 2× that of NiFe UT-LDHs (49.5%) at 1.52 V. Ni–O and Mn–O motifs function as dual active sites for HMF electrooxidation, where the continuous deprotonation of Mn–OH sites plays a dominant role in achieving high selectivity while suppressing OER at high potentials. The results showcase a universal concept of modulating competing anodic reactions in aqueous biomass electrolysis by electronically engineering the deprotonation behavior of metal hydroxides, anticipated to be translatable across various biomass substrates.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solar enhanced oxygen evolution reaction with transition metal telluride

The photo-enhanced electrocatalytic method of oxygen evolution reaction (OER) shows promise for enhancing the effectiveness of clear energy generation through water splitting by using renewable and sustainable source of energy. However, despite benefits of photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) water splitting, its uses are constrained by its low efficiency as a result of charge carrier recombination, a large overpotential, and sluggish reaction kinetics. Here, we illustrate that Nickel telluride (NiTe) synthesized by hydrothermal methods can function as an extremely effective photo-coupled electrochemical oxygen evolution reaction (POER) catalyst. In this study, NiTe was synthesized by hydrothermal method at 145°C within just an hour of reaction time. In dark conditions, the NiTe deposited on carbon cloth substrate shows a small oxygen evolution reaction overpotential (261 mV) at a current density of 10 mA cm –2 , a reduced Tafel slope (65.4 mV dec -1 ), and negligible activity decay after 12 h of chronoamperometry. By virtue of its enhanced photo response, excellent light harvesting ability, and increased interfacial kinetics of charge separation, the NiTe electrode under simulated solar illumination displays exceptional photoelectrochemical performance exhibiting overpotential of 165 mV at current density of 10 mA cm -2 , which is about 96 mV less than on dark conditions. In addition, Density Functional Theory investigations have been carried out on the NiTe surface, the results of which demonstrated a greater adsorption energy for intermediate -OH on the catalyst site. Since the -OH adsorption on the catalyst site correlates to catalyst activation, it indicates the facile electrocatalytic activity of NiTe owing to favorable catalyst activation. DFT calculations also revealed the facile charge density redistribution following intermediate -OH adsorption on the NiTe surface. This work demonstrates that arrays of NiTe elongated nanostructure are a promising option for both electrochemical and photoelectrocatalytic water oxidation and offers broad suggestions for developing effective PEC devices.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗