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The maximum solar energy (16 Solar Constants) irradiating experiment orifice E6 intermittently during the mission of space probe HELIOS has been reproduced in a High Intensity Component Test Facility. A detailed comparison is given between test results and flight data evaluation.
The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) launched February 11,2010 from Kennedy Space Center and started normal science operations in April 2010. One of the instruments onboard SDO, the EUV Variability Experiment (EVE), will measure the solar EUV irradiance from 0.1-105 nm with 0.1 nm spectral resolution as well as a measure of the broad-band Lyman-Alpha emission (121.6 nm), all with less than 10 percent uncertainties. One of the biggest improvements of EVE over its predecessors is its ability to continuously measure the complete spectrum every 10 seconds, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This temporal coverage and cadence will greatly enhance the knowledge of the solar EUV variations during solar flares. This paper will present a comparison of the Flare Irradiance Spectral Model (FISM), which can produce an estimated EUV spectrum at 10 seconds temporal resolution, to the preliminary results from SDO EVE. The discussion will focus on the short-term EUV flare variations and evolution.
The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) launched February 11, 2010 from Kennedy Space Center and started normal science operations in April 2010. One of the instruments onboard SDO, the EUV Variability- Experiment (EVE), will measure the solar EUV irradiance from 0.1-105 nm with 0.1 nm spectral resolution as well as a measure of the broad-band Lyman-Alpha emission (121.0 rim), all with less than 10 percent uncertainties. One of the biggest improvements of EVE over its predecessors is its ability to continuously measure the complete spectrum ever y 10 seconds, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This temporal coverage and cadence will greatly enhance the knowledge of the solar EUV variations during solar flares. This paper will present a comparison of the Flare Irradiance Spectral Model (FISM), which can produce an estimated EUV spectrum at 10 seconds temporal resolution, to the preliminary flare observation results from SDO EVE. The discussion will focus on the short-term EUV flare variations and evolution.
Regolith particles from airless bodies preserve a record of the space weathering processes that occurred during their surface exposure history. These processes have major implications for interpreting remote-sensing data from airless bodies. Solar wind irradiation effects occur in the rims of exposed grains, and impact processes result in the accumulation of vapordeposited elements and other surface-adhering materials. The grains returned from the surface of Itokawa by the Hayabusa mission allow the space weathering "style" of a chondritic, asteroidal "soil" to be compared to the lunar case. Here, we present new studies of space-weathered olivine grains from lunar soils, and compare these results to olivine grains from Itokawa. Samples and Methods: We analyzed microtome thin sections of olivine grains from the 20-45 micron fractions of three lunar soils: 71061, 71501 and 10084 (immature, submature and mature, respectively). Imaging and analytical data were obtained using a JEOL 2500SE 200kV field-emission scanning-transmission electron microscope equipped with a thin-window energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometer. Similar analyses were obtained from three Hayabusa olivine grains. Results and Discussion: We observed lunar grains showing a range of solar flare track densities (from <10(exp 9) to approx.10(exp 12)/sq cm). The lunar olivines all show disordered, highly strained, nanocrystalline rims up to 150-nm thick. The disordered rim thickness is positively correlated with solar flare track density. All of the disordered rims are overlain by a Si-rich amorphous layer, ranging up to 50-nm thick, enriched in elements that are not derived from the host olivine (e.g., Ca, Al, and Ti). The outmost layer represents impact-generated vapor deposits typically observed on other lunar soil grains. The Hayabusa olivine grains show track densities <10(exp 10)/sq cm and display disordered rims 50- to 100-nm thick. The track densities are intermediate to those observed in olivines in immature and submature lunar soils and indicate surface exposures of approx. 10(exp 5) years. The outermost few nanometers of the disordered rims on Hayabusa olivines are more Si-rich and Mg- and Fe-depleted relative to the cores of the grains and likely represent a minor accumulation of impact-generated vapors or sputter deposits. Nanophase Fe metal particles are less abundant in the Hayabusa rims compared to the rims on lunar grains. Conclusions: The Hayabusa and lunar olivine grain rims have widths and microstructures consistent with formation from atomic displacement damage from solar wind ions. The space weathering features in the Hayabusa grains are similar to those observed in olivines from immature to submature lunar soils. A major difference, however, is that the Hayabusa grains appear to lack the hypervelocity impact products (melt spherules, thick vapor deposits, and abundant nanophase Fe metal particles) that are common in lunar soil grains with a similar exposure history.
A new empirical atmospheric density model is developed using the CIRA72 (Jacchia 71) model as the basis for the diffusion equations. New solar indices based on orbit based sensor data are used for the solar irradiances in the extreme and far ultraviolet wavelengths. New exospheric temperature and semiannual density equations are employed to represent the major thermospheric density variations. Temperature correction equations are also developed for diurnal and latitudinal effects, and finally density correction factors are used for model corrections required at high altitude (1500-4000 km). The new model, Jacchia-Bowman 2006, is validated through comparisons of accurate daily density drag data previously computed for numerous satellite. For 400 km altitude the standard deviation of 16% for the standard Jacchia model is reduced to 10% for the new JB2006 model for periods of low geomagnetic storm activity.
Parametric characterization data on Spectrolab 2 by 4 cm, 2 ohm/cm, 228 micron thick wraparound cell, a candidate for the Solar Electric Propulsion Mission, are presented. These data consist of the electrical characteristics of the solar cell under a wide range of temperature and illumination intensity combinations of the type encountered in space applications.
Ground-based instruments cannot directly measure solar irradiance variability at the 0.1% level at which it occurs because of the earth's atmosphere. However, many forms of ground-based solar observations correlate well with solar irradiance variations, and this fact has been used to construct facular-sunspot models which can explain about 90% of the variance of total solar irradiance as observed by spacecraft radiometers. It is not yet clear whether remaining discrepancies are observational or require additional sources in the model. This paper is a selective review of the current status of the use of ground-based data to understand spacecraft observations of solar irradiance and to apply this understanding to periods before space-based measurements were available. New results from the extension of the histogram analysis of NASA/NSO spectromagnetograph observations (Jones et al., 2000, ApJ529, 1070) to the period from Nov. 1992 to Sep. 2000 are reported which confirm that strong mixed polarity magnetic regions (quiet network) are not significantly correlated with total solar irradiance and which show an unexplained linear trend in the residuals of a multiple regression.
The present status of our knowledge of the total and spectral irradiance of the sun is briefly reviewed. The currently accepted NASA/ASTM standard values of the solar constant and the extraterrestrial solar spectral irradiance are presented. The uncertainties in these values are relatively high. Data on the variability of the solar constant are conflicting and inconclusive. The variability of solar spectral irradiance is almost totally unknown and unexplored. Some alleged sun-weather relationships are cited in support of the need to know more precisely the variations in total and spectral solar irradiance. An overview of the solar monitoring program of NASA is presented, with special emphasis on the Solar Energy Monitor in Space (SEMIS) experiment which has been proposed for several spacecraft missions. The monitor is a combination of a solar-constant detector and a prism monochromator.
This paper presents the results of investigations made experimentally and theoretically to evaluate the various parameters that affect the amount of solar energy received on a collector surface. Measurements were made over a long period of time using both pyranometer and pyrheliometer. Computation of spectral and total irradiance at ground level have been made for a large variety of combinations of atmospheric parameters for ozone density, precipitable water vapor, turbidity-coefficients and air mass. A study of the air mass as a function of irradiance measured at GSFC, and comparison of the data with the computed values of total direct solar irradiance for various parameters indicate that turbidity changes with time of the day; atmospheric opacity is less in the afternoon than in the morning.
Required solar irradiance measurements for climate studies include those now being made by the Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM) and the Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM) onboard the SORCE satellite, part of the Earth Observing System fleet of NASA satellites. Equivalent or better measures of Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) and Spectral Solar Irradiance (SSI, 200 to 2000 nm) are planned for the post-2010 satellites of the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System ("OESS). The design life of SORCE is 5 years, so a "Solar Irradiance Gap Filler" EOS mission is being planned for launch in the 2007 time frame, to include the same TSI and SSI measurements. Besides avoiding any gap, overlap of the data sources is also necessary for determination of possible multi-decadal trends in solar irradiance. We discuss these requirements and the impacts of data gaps, and data overlaps, that may occur in the monitoring of the critical solar radiative forcing.
Electrical parametric data are presented on BSF, BSR, textured 10 ohm cm, 50 micron advanced OAST cells in graphical and tabular form as functions of solar illumination intensity, temperature, and 1 MeV electron fluence.
Available quantitative data on solar total and spectral irradiance are examined in the context of utilization of solar irradiance for terrestrial applications of solar energy. The extraterrestrial solar total and spectral irradiance values are also reviewed. Computed values of solar spectral irradiance at ground level for different air mass values and various levels of atmospheric pollution or turbidity are presented. Wavelengths are given for computation of solar, absorptance, transmittance and reflectance by the 100 selected-ordinate method and by the 50 selected-ordinate method for air mass 1.5 and 2 solar spectral irradiance for the four levels of atmospheric pollution.
The handbook discusses the history of GaAs solar cell development, presents equations useful for working with GaAs solar cells, describes commonly used instrumentation techniques for assessing radiation effects in solar cells and fundamental processes occurring in solar cells exposed to ionizing radiation, and explains why radiation decreases the electrical performance of solar cells. Three basic elements required to perform solar array degradation calculations: degradation data for GaAs solar cells after irradiation with 1 MeV electrons at normal incidence; relative damage coefficients for omnidirectional electron and proton exposure; and the definition of the space radiation environment for the orbit of interest, are developed and used to perform a solar array degradation calculation.
This paper presents a survey of available quantitative data on the total and spectral solar irradiance at ground level and outside the atmosphere. Measurements from research aircraft have resulted in the currently accepted NASA/ASTM standards of the solar constant and zero air mass solar spectral irradiance. The intrinsic variability of solar energy output and programs currently under way for more precise measurements from spacecraft are discussed. Instrumentation for solar measurements and their reference radiation scales are examined. Insolation data available from the records of weather stations are reviewed for their applicability to solar energy conversion. Two alternate methods of solarimetry are briefly discussed.
In this paper we present a new method to reconstruct the solar spectrum irradiance in the Ly alpha-400 nm region, and its variability, based on the Mg II index and neutron monitor. Measurements of the solar spectral irradiance available in the literature have been made with different instruments at different times and different spectral ranges. However, climate studies require harmonized data sets. This new approach has the advantage of being independent of the absolute calibration and aging of the instruments. First, the Mg II index is derived using solar spectra from Ly alpha (121 nm) to 410 nm measured from 1978 to 2010 by several space missions. The variability of the spectra with respect to a chosen reference spectrum as a function of time and wavelength is scaled to the derived Mg II index. The set of coefficients expressing the spectral variability can be applied to the chosen reference spectrum to reconstruct the solar spectra within a given time frame or Mg II index values. The accuracy of this method is estimated using two approaches: by direct comparison with particular cases where solar spectra are available from independent measurements, and by calculating the standard deviation between the measured spectra and their reconstruction. From direct comparisons with measurements we obtain an accuracy of about 1 to 2 %, which degrades towards Ly alpha. In a further step, we extend our solar spectral irradiance reconstruction back to the Maunder Minimum introducing the relationship between the Mg II index and the neutron monitor data. Consistent measurements of the Mg II index are not available prior to 1978. However, we observe that over the last three solar cycles, the Mg II index shows strong correlation with the modulation potential determined from the neutron monitor data. Assuming that this correlation can be applied to the past, we reconstruct the Mg II index from the modulation potential back to the Maunder Minimum, and obtain the corresponding solar spectral irradiance reconstruction back to that period. As there is no direct measurement of the spectral irradiance for this period we discuss this methodology in light of the other proposed approaches available in the literature. The use of the cosmogenic isotope data provides a major advantage: it provides information about the solar activity over several thousands years. Using technology of today we can calibrate the solar irradiance against the activity and thus reconstruct it for the times when cosmogenic isotope data are available. This calibration can be re-accessed at any time, if necessary.
The scientific objectives of the variability of solar irradiance and gravity oscillations (VIRGO) experiment are as follows: to determine the characteristics of pressure and internal gravity oscillations by observing irradiance and radiance variations; to measure the solar total and spectral irradiance, and to quantify their variability. Helioseismological methods can be applied to these data in order to probe the solar interior. Certain convection characteristics and their interaction with magnetic fields will be studied from the results of the irradiance monitoring and from the comparison of the amplitudes and phases of the oscillations as observed from the brightness by VIRGO and from velocity by the global oscillations at low frequency (GOLF) experiment. The VIRGO experiment contains two active-cavity radiometers that monitor the solar constant, two three-channel sunphotometers that measure the spectral irradiance, and a low resolution imager with 12 pixels that measures the radiance distribution over the solar disk at 500 nm. The scientific objectives of VIRGO are presented, the instruments and the data acquisition and control system are described, and their measured performances are given.
Two 1/8-meter Ebert-Fastie spectrometers were refurbished and upgraded in order to measure the solar spectral irradiances between 1160 A and 3100 A. An evacuated 1/4-meter normal-incidence spectrometer was also fabricated for spectral irradiance measurements over the wavelength range from 1250 A to 250 A. Procedures were developed for the calibration of all three instruments utilizing standards at the National Bureau of Standards. The two 1/8-meter spectrometers were flown to measure the solar spectral irradiances near solar maximum on two different dates. Data from these flights were analyzed. The performance of the spectrometers, and the results of an analysis of the variabilities of the solar spectral irradiances over the solar cycles 20 and 21 are discussed.
A set of parametric data is presented on the Spectrolab textured, back-surface-field, back-surface-reflector solar cell which is a commercially available product.