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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2015

Mars Soil-Based Resource Processing and Planetary Protection

The ability to extract and process resources at the site of exploration into products and services, commonly referred to as In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), can have significant benefits for robotic and human exploration missions. In particular, the ability to use in situ resources to make propellants, fuel cell reactants, and life support consumables has been shown in studies to significantly reduce mission mass, cost, and risk, while enhancing or enabling missions not possible without the incorporation of ISRU. In December 2007, NASA completed the Mars Human Design Reference Architecture (DRA) 5.0 study. For the first time in a large scale Mars architecture study, water from Mars soil was considered as a potential resource. At the time of the study, knowledge of water resources (their form, concentration, and distribution) was extremely limited. Also, due to lack of understanding of how to apply planetary protection rules and requirements to ISRU soil-based excavation and processing, an extremely conservative approach was incorporated where only the top several centimeters of ultraviolet (UV) radiated soil could be processed (assumed to be 3% water by mass). While results of the Mars DRA 5.0 study showed that combining atmosphere processing to make oxygen and methane with soil processing to extract water provided the lowest mission mass, atmosphere processing to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into oxygen was baselined for the mission since it was the lowest power and risk option. With increased knowledge and further clarification of Mars planetary protection rules, and the recent release of the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) report on "Special Regions and the Human Exploration of Mars", it is time to reexamine potential water resources on Mars, options for soil processing to extract water, and the implications with respect to planetary protection and Special Regions on Mars.

Sanders, G. B.↗
NASA NTRS2015

DRAGONS - A Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris Impact Sensor

The Debris Resistive/Acoustic Grid Orbital Navy-NASA Sensor (DRAGONS) is intended to be a large area impact sensor for in situ measurements of micrometeoroids and orbital debris (MMOD) in the millimeter or smaller size regime. These MMOD particles are too small to be detected by ground-based radars and optical telescopes, but are still large enough to be a serious safety concern for human space activities and robotic missions in the low Earth orbit (LEO) region. The nominal detection area of a DRAGONS unit is 1 m2, consisting of several independently operated panels. The approach of the DRAGONS design is to combine different particle impact detection principles to maximize information that can be extracted from detected events. After more than 10 years of concept and technology development, a 1 m2 DRAGONS system has been selected for deployment on the International Space Station (ISS) in August 2016. The project team achieved a major milestone when the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) was completed in May 2015. Once deployed on the ISS, this multi-year mission will provide a unique opportunity to demonstrate the MMOD detection capability of the DRAGONS technologies and to collect data to better define the small MMOD environment at the ISS altitude.

Liou, J. -C.↗
NASA NTRS2015

3D Printing the Complete CubeSat

The 3D Printing the Complete CubeSat project is designed to advance the state-of-the-art in 3D printing for CubeSat applications. Printing in 3D has the potential to increase reliability, reduce design iteration time and provide greater design flexibility in the areas of radiation mitigation, communications, propulsion, and wiring, among others. This project is investigating the possibility of including propulsion systems into the design of printed CubeSat components. One such concept, an embedded micro pulsed plasma thruster (mPPT), could provide auxiliary reaction control propulsion for a spacecraft as a means to desaturate momentum wheels.

Printing CubeSat subsystems↗
NASA NTRS2015

Ensuring Cassini's End-of-Mission Propellant Margins

The Cassini spacecraft is in its final years. On September 15, 2017, Cassini will plunge deep into Saturn's atmosphere never to reemerge; thus concluding its second extended mission and 13 years in orbit around the ringed planet. As of October 2014, the spacecraft is four years in to its seven-year, second extended mission, the Cassini Solstice Mission (CSM). With three years left and only 2.5% of its loaded bipropellant and 37% of its loaded monopropellant remaining, the Cassini project actively manages the predicted end-of-mission propellant margins to maintain a high confidence in the spacecraft's ability to complete the CSM as designed.

Sturm, Erick J., II↗
NASA NTRS2016

System Assessment of a High Power 3-U CubeSat

The Advanced eLectrical Bus (ALBus) CubeSat project is a technology demonstration mission of a 3-UCubeSat with an advanced, digitally controlled electrical power system capability and novel use of Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) technology for reliable deployable solar array mechanisms. The objective of the project is to, through an on orbit demonstration, advance the state of power management and distribution (PMAD) capabilities to enable future missions requiring higher power, flexible and reliable power systems. The goals of the mission include demonstration of: 100 Watt distribution to a target electrical load, efficient battery charging in the orbital environment, flexible power system distribution interfaces, adaptation of power system control on orbit, and reliable deployment of solar arrays and antennas utilizing re-settable SMA mechanisms. The power distribution function of the ALBus PMAD system is unique in the total power to target load capability of 100 W, the flexibility to support centralized or point-to-load regulation and ability to respond to fast transient power requirements. Power will be distributed from batteries at 14.8 V, 6.5 A to provide 100 W of power directly to a load. The deployable solar arrays utilize NASA Glenn Research Center superelastic and activated Nitinol(Nickel-Titanium alloy) Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) technology for hinges and a retention and release mechanism. The deployable solar array hinge design features utilization of the SMA material properties for dual purpose. The hinge uses the shape memory properties of the SMA to provide the spring force to deploy the arrays. The electrical conductivity properties of the SMA also enables the design to provide clean conduits for power transfer from the deployable arrays to the power management system. This eliminates the need for electrical harnesses between the arrays and the PMAD system in the ALBus system design. The uniqueness of the SMA retention and release mechanism design is the ability to reset the mechanism, allowing functional tests of the mechanisms prior to flight with no degradation of performance. The project is currently in preparation at the NASA Glenn Research Center for a launch in late calendar year of 2017. The 100 Watt power distribution and dual purpose, re-settable SMA mechanisms introduced several system level challenges due to the physical constraints in volume, mass and surface area of 3-U CubeSats. Several trade studies and design cycles have been completed to develop a system which supports the project objectives. This paper is a report on the results of the system level trade studies and assessments. The results include assessment of options for thermal control of 100 Watts of power dissipation, data from system analyses and engineering development tests, limitations of the 3-U system and extensibility to larger scale CubeSat missions.

CubeSat↗
NASA NTRS2017

NASA Curation Preparation for Ryugu Sample Returned by JAXA's Hayabusa2 Mission

The NASA OSIRIS-REx and JAXA Hayabusa2 missions to near-Earth asteroids Bennu and Ryugu share similar mission goals of understanding the origins of primitive, organic-rich asteroids. Under an agreement between JAXA and NASA, there is an on-going and productive collaboration between science teams of Hayabusa2 and OSIRIS-REx missions. Under this agreement, a portion of each of the returned sample masses will be exchanged between the agencies and the scientific results of their study will be shared. NASA’s portion of the returned Hayabusa2 sample, consisting of 10% of the returned mass, will be jointly separated by NASA and JAXA. The sample will be legally and physically transferred to NASA’s dedicated Hayabusa2 curation facility at Johnson Space Center (JSC) no later than one year after the return of the Hayabusa2 sample to Earth (December 2020). The JSC Hayabusa2 curation cleanroom facility design has now been completed. In the same manner, JAXA will receive 0.5% of the total returned OSIRIS-REx sample (minimum required sample to return 60 g, maximum sample return capacity of 2 kg) from the rest of the specimen. No later than one year after the return of the OSIRIS-REx sample to Earth (September 2023), legal, physical, and permanent custody of this sample subset will be transferred to JAXA, and the sample subset will be brought to JAXA’s Extraterrestrial Sample Curation Center (ESCuC) at Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Sagamihara City Japan.

Nakamura-Messenger, Keiko↗
NASA NTRS2015

Signals of Opportunity Airborne Demonstrator (SoOP-AD)

In the second year of the SoOp-AD project, a brassboard analog section has been completed, along with working designs for the digital section and an antenna compatible with the NASA Langley B-200 or UC-12B aircraft. Resource requirements for the digital section FPGA are being finalized. One technical challenge at P-band is that the low transmitted data rate makes isolation of the direct and reflected signals using path delay, the conventional practice for GNSS reflectometry, difficult. Any retrieval of surface reflectivity from these measurements must account for the combination of direct and reflected signal in both the sky-view and Earth-view antennas. We have approached this challenge on several fronts; First, through null steering of the antenna. Second, through the formulation of an empirical calibration function for the reflectivity; and finally through estimating the direct and reflected signal powers as independent states in a Kalman filter. In addition to the direct-reflected interference from the same transmitter, there is also the possibility of interference due to transmissions, in adjacent bands, from other satellites in the constellation. Ground-based repeaters are also present in the S-band spectrum. Digital filters are being designed to isolate these repeaters, using simulations to verify the magnitude of their effect on the reflectivity and soil moisture retrievals. Other contributions to the error budget include the uncertainty in aircraft altitude, and the antenna pattern.

Radar↗
NASA NTRS2019

Pterodactyl: An Uncoupled Range Control Approach to Fully Numerical Predictor-Corrector Entry Guidance

Entry, descent, and landing (EDL) has been identified as a core area of investment in NASA's Strategic Technology Investment Plan (NASA STIP). STIP lists the space technologies needed to help achieve NASA's science, technology, and exploration goals across the agency. Within the EDL core area, deployable hypersonic decelerators, also known as deployable entry vehicles (DEVs), have been identified as an area of investment, due to its potential to revolutionize payload delivery methods to Earth and other planets. These vehicles, which can deploy their heat shields or alter their shape before entry, exploit an increased and more effective drag ratio by using less mass than traditional blunt body vehicles with rigid aeroshells. DEVs like Adaptive Deployable Entry and Placement Technology (ADEPT) and Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD) have demonstrated the capability of transporting the equivalent science payloads of blunt body rigid aeroshells, while using a significantly smaller diameter when stowed within a launch vehicle. While DEVs' increased energy dissipation for less mass is an attractive feature, their ability to contract and expand would require advancements in the current state-of-the-art guidance and control (G&C) architectures used by traditional rigid vehicles. Pterodactyl, a project funded by NASA's Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD), aims to provide feasible integrated G&C solutions for DEVs, complete with optimized vehicle designs and packaging analyses. Structural and aerodynamic analyses for the explored control systems suggested a need for a bank angle guidance algorithm, a heritage guidance approach that has been used in many entry precision targeting vehicles, as well as an additional need for the development of a non-bank angle guidance. For this reason, Pterodactyl will consider four different G&C configurations during its design phase: i) a reaction control system for bank (sigma) control, ii) a mass movement system for angle of attack (alpha) sideslip (beta) control, iii) flaps for alpha - beta control, and iv) flaps for sigma control. To increase the applicability of each proposed integrated G&C architecture, an 11 km/s lunar return demonstration mission is selected to stress the developed technology capability. The Lifting Nano-ADEPT (LNA) vehicle is chosen as the DEV to demonstrate the integrated solutions. This paper will detail the trajectory design for a lunar return mission, using the validated bank control guidance algorithm Fully Numerical Predictor-Corrector Entry Guidance (FNPEG) and a newly developed guidance algorithm: FNPEG Uncoupled Range Control (URC). FNPEG-URC diverges from traditional bank angle guidances by producing alpha and beta commands to thereby decouple downrange and crossrange control. This presentation will discuss the development and overall performance of FNPEG and FNPEG-URC for each of the four G&C configurations. Successful G&C configurations are defined as those that can deliver payloads to the intended descent and landing site while abiding by trajectory constraints in the face of dispersions.

Johnson, Breanna↗
NASA NTRS2020

Pterodactyl: Control System Demonstrator Development for Integrated Control Design of a Mechanically Deployed Entry Vehicle

The NASA-funded Pterodactyl project is a design, test, and build capability to (i) advance the current state of the art for Deployable Entry Vehicle (DEV) guidance and control (G&C), and (ii) determine the feasibility of control system integration for various entry vehicle types including those without aeroshells. This capability is currently being used to develop control systems for one such unconventional entry vehicle, the Lifting Nano-ADEPT (LNA) vehicle. ADEPT offers the possibility of integrating control systems directly onto the mechanically deployed structure and building hardware demonstrators will help assess integration and design challenges. Control systems based on aerodynamic control surfaces, mass movement, and reaction control systems (RCS) are currently being investigated for a down-select to the most suitable control architecture for the LNA.To that effect, in this submission, we detail the efforts of the Pterodactyl project to develop a series of hardware demonstrators for the different LNA control systems. Rapid prototypes, for a set of quarter- model or eighth-model vehicle segments, will be developed for all three architectures to validate mechanical design assumptions, and hardware-in-the-loop (HIWL) control approaches. A ground test control system demonstrator will be designed and built after the trade study is complete. The industrial-grade demonstrator will be designed so that it can be incorporated into a HWIL simulation to further validate the findings of the initial trade study. The HWIL simulation will leverage the iPAS environment developed at NASA's Johnson Space Center which facilitates integration testing to support technology maturation and risk reduction, necessary elements for the hardware demonstration development detailed in this paper.

Margolis, Benjamin W.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Generation of a Reduced-Order Model of an Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle Using Indicial Response Functions

Within the NATO STO AVT-251 Task Group, a generic Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle (UCAV) planform was redesigned based on requirements derived from parts of the flight envelope of the defined mission. Because of the lambda-shape planform and associated flow phenomena including shocks and vortices, the aerodynamic design process relies heavily on high-fidelity predictions from computational fluid dynamics (CFD). These simulations enable accurate flight dynamics predictions, allowing for the identification of any potential performance issues early in the design process. Potentially, a complete flight dynamics model can be derived from CFD calculations provided that the underlying reduced order model (ROM) captures the underlying physics contained within the CFD results. This work investigates the creation of a nonlinear ROM using indicial response functions. The response functions are obtained using a grid motion approach that separates the effects of angle of attack and pitch rate. This approach is demonstrated using three different CFD codes from various organizations: ENSOLV at Royal Netherlands Aerospace Centre, USM3D at NASA Langley Research Center, and Kestrel at the United States Air Force Academy. ROM predictions were generated for a manoeuver resembling a low-speed pull-up. The predictions are found to be sensitive to the quality of the steady-state solutions from which step-response calculations were started, as well as the convergence of the step responses themselves. Nevertheless, the indicial response method is shown to provide aerodynamic predictions with acceptable accuracy including transient effects, and as such is a promising method for computationally efficient flight dynamics predictions.

Michel P.C. van Rooij↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Analysis of Cislunar Transfers Departing from a Near Rectilinear Halo Orbit Using Solar Electric Propulsion

An analysis is completed to support the design of optimized trajectories of a massive spacecraft from an L2 Southern NRHO to a Distant Retrograde Orbit and a L2 Northern NRHO using a Solar Electric Propulsion System (SEP). An optimized trajectory is developed for each transfer for a 54t spacecraft utilizing a 26.6kW SEP system. A parameterization is developed for each reference transfer to allow analysis of the sensitivity of the trajectory to changes in vehicle mass, SEP power, and Ion Propulsion System (IPS) performance. Required Dv for each transfer is characterized by the initial acceleration of the spacecraft, thus allowing trajectories to be assessed over a wide range of vehicle mass and SEP power inputs. This approach is shown to be useful in identifying optimal IPS configurations for minimizing propellant requirements for the reference transfers. Additionally, the analysis identifies regions where increases in SEP power do not immediately result in a corresponding decrease in required propellant as well as highlights the relative sensitivities of propellant requirements to changes in IPS thrust and specific impulse.

low thrust↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Recent NASA Research into the Psychoacoustics of Urban Air Mobility Vehicles

NASA maintains multiple psychoacoustic laboratories across the United States. One focus of research in these facilities is to investigate the human reaction to the noise of notional UAM vehicles. This effort will look for answers to several questions: What does a “good” UAM sound like? What might be the impact on existing urban soundscapes? What will people think when there are an [economically viable] number of these machines operating? Although this effort is ongoing, a number of advances have already been made: A psychoacoustic test to guide UAM sound design has been recently completed. Several algorithms to assess the audibility of a UAM vehicle in an existing background soundscape have been put forward. A technical memorandum detailing best practices for recording and reproduction of background sounds for UAM psychoacoustic research has been published (TM 20210017504). Flexible data analysis methods that could be agile to changes in perception that occur when large numbers of vehicles are flying have been developed by extending existing metrics. This presentation gives an overview of this completed and continuing research.

UAM↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Going South: Warnings from the Largest Project Engineering Failure in Modern History

NASA’s successful conduct of the Apollo Program greatly enhanced the prestige of the United States and remains broadly accepted as America’s gift “for all Mankind.” NASA’s Artemis Program to return humanity to the Moon promises to again reveal America’s leadership in this field. In preparation for the initiation of Artemis and its predecessor project Constellation, NASA thoroughly examined space program precedents. There remains, however, another relevant precedent which has not been examined in this context. Though this project involved technology radically different from that managed by NASA, its scope and environment in many ways parallel NASA’s large programs. This project was initiated by a private sector team that had, ten years before, successfully completed an effort that, at a cost of $275 billion (in 2021 USD), had stimulated new technology, had brought economic growth, had established their country as the world leader in engineering innovation, and, though it was a commercial success, had been broadly accepted as their nation’s gift “to all Mankind.” The new project was inspired by popular belief that private capital could again be marshalled to enhance national prestige and make yet another major contribution to the progress of Humanity. This new effort was predicted to require eight years and $258 billion. However, after the passage of nine years, achievement of only 45% complete on the baseline design, and expenditures 96% beyond the baseline cost, the project collapsed amid bankruptcy, political scandal, and criminal prosecution. While the private sector team that carried out this project was exceptionally well educated and experienced in the field, their efforts resulted in what remains (in terms of the money wasted) the largest project engineering failure in modern history. This paper examines what went wrong.

Project Management↗
NASA NTRS2013

X-HAB: Vertical Habitability Layout and Fabrication Studies - Voronoi Algorithmic Space Transport (VAST)

The final presentation of the California Polytechnic State University's Vertical Habitability Layout and Fabrication Studies, a vertical habitat. The goals of the project are: - Design the interior of a vertical habitat, with a well-documented link back to the process of design (continuing the work completed the first quarter, with parametrically-derived volumes, internal layout, etc.). - A full-size low-fidelity 3-D spatial (mockup of the vertical habitat.

Michael Fox↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Ultrapure Water System at JSC for High Purity Cleaning of Flight Hardware, Astromaterial Handling Tools and Solar Wind Samples

Use of Ultrapure Water (UPW) for cleaning of astromaterial sample handling tools and containers was driven by the discontinuation of Freon 113 as a cleaning solvent, due to environmental concerns. Freon 113, recycled using distillation, was very effective at removing organic residues from sample handling hardware. The initial switch to high purity water for astromaterial tool cleaning was modeled after efforts at White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) and current semiconductor UPW production practices in the early 1990s. JSC curation’s first system was comprised of ion exchange polishing cylinders, 55 gallon PVDF-lined storage tank, a few tens of feet of PVDF piping, UV and particle filtration, and this system supported cleaning for lunar, meteorite and Cosmic Dust collectors lab operations. By 2000 a major expansion and upgrade was providing UPW of quality E-1 (ASTM D5127-90) or better at 10 gpm for cleaning of the Genesis solar wind payload for flight, in addition to sample handling tools for other astromaterials. This expansion included a 1000 gallon storage tank and several hundred feet of PVDF piping located in B. 31 and 31N. An extra reverse osmosis process unit was added to incoming water in 2005. Subsequently several major components were replaced, and in anticipation of adding new labs, an enlarged UPW system was designed in 2018 and completed in 2019. This system produces grade E1.1 UPW at 15 gpm in a continuous 1100 ft. loop with 5000 gal. storage tank, supplying 8 laboratories.

Ultrapure water↗
NASA NTRS2024

Mission and Vehicle-Level Updates for the Parallel Electric-Gas Architecture with Synergistic Utilization Scheme (PEGASUS) Concept Aircraft

NASA created the PEGASUS concept with the goal of lowering mission energy (a surrogate for operating cost) compared to other regional aircraft by leveraging electrified aircraft propulsion (EAP). Since its inception, researchers have explored multiple facets of PEGASUS in varying fidelity but have not completed a rigorous, integrated design. The goal of this memorandum is to provide an updated design using recent studies and improved methods. This memorandum explores the initial vehicle concept and concept of operations, while considering ways to improve both the mission concept of operations and the integrated vehicle-level performance. Additionally, the design and analysis methodologies for EAP-enabled aircraft concepts are improved in several areas. This research incorporates new propulsion-airframe integration and wing weight surrogates to model the impacts of wingtip propulsors on the configuration. Detailed weight and balance calculations enable calculating dynamic stability and flight qualities within the conceptual design environment. Ultimately, the vehicle is optimized to reduce "well-to-wake" equivalent CO2, CO2e, rather than minimizing either fuel (or total energy) consumption or maximum takeoff weight. Using fuel/energy or takeoff weight leads to conflicting optima for hybrid-electric aircraft. Two aircraft are developed to provide points of comparison for PEGASUS: an advanced conventional turboprop vehicle and a hybrid-electric variant. The results show that the PEGASUS concept can reduce CO2e relative to the advanced turboprop or a hybrid-electric propulsion architecture, albeit with an increase in maximum takeoff weight. PEGASUS's maximum takeoff weight is 55% heavier than the advanced conventional turboprop but releases 18% less CO2e for a 400 nmi mission. Over the same mission, PEGASUS's maximum takeoff weight is 47% heavier than the comparator hybrid-electric vehicle but releases 12% less CO2e. This study shows that the PEGASUS configuration reduces CO2e through its use of wingtip propulsors and that its benefit is not solely a result of switching to a hybrid-electric propulsion architecture. PEGASUS achieves this reduction in CO2e while maintaining satisfactory Level 1 or 2 flight qualities for all of its longitudinal- and lateral-directional modes.

Hybrid-electric↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Aluminum to Stainless-Steel Joints for Cryogenic Applications

Aluminum to stainless-steel joints are necessary for cryogenic applications such as cryogenic fluid management and combustion devices. Supplemental development in this area was required for a test program at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) of an Al6061-RAM2 additively manufacturing liquid rocket nozzle. The test program identified a risk for installing stainless-steel fluid fittings to aluminum manifolds. To address this, a literature search was completed for various joint designs, and three designs were down selected to be cryogenic pressure cycle tested at MSFC. The test pieces were subsequently burst tested with ambient temperature water. This paper provides an overview of the literature review, down selected designs, test setup, test results, and fractography. The test results informed design decisions for the Al6061-RAM2 nozzle, and the recommended design proved to be a robust option with no notable issues identified during hot-fire testing.

Tessa M. Fedotowsky↗
DOE OSTI2014

Reversible Bending Fatigue Testing on Zry-4 Surrogate Rods

Testing high-burnup spent nuclear fuel (SNF) presents many challenges in areas such as specimen preparation, specimen installation, mechanical loading, load control, measurements, data acquisition, and specimen disposal because these tasks are complicated by the radioactivity of the test specimens. Research and comparison studies conducted at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) resulted in a new concept in 2010 for a U-frame testing setup on which to perform hot-cell reversible bending fatigue testing. Subsequently, the three-dimensional finite element analysis and the engineering design of components were completed. In 2013 the ORNL team finalized the upgrade of the U-frame testing setup and the integration of the U-frame setup into a Bose dual linear motor test bench to develop a cyclic integrated reversible-bending fatigue tester (CIRFT). A final check was conducted on the CIRFT test system in August 2013, and the CIRFT was installed in the hot cell in September 2013 to evaluate both the static and dynamic mechanical response of SNF rods under simulated loads. The fatigue responses of Zircaloy-4 (Zry-4) cladding and the role of pellet pellet and pellet clad interactions are critical to SNF vibration integrity, but such data are not available due to the unavailability of an effective testing system. While the deployment of the developed CIRFT test system in a hot cell will provide the opportunity to generate the data, the use of a surrogate rod has proven quite effective in identifying the underlying deformation mechanism of an SNF composite rod under an equivalent loading condition. This paper presents the experimental results of using surrogate rods under CIRFT reversible cyclic loading. Specifically, monotonic and cyclic bending tests were conducted on surrogate rods made of a Zry-4 tube and alumina pellet inserts, both with and without an epoxy bond.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗