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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1994

A dynamic localization model with stochastic backscatter

The modeling of subgrid scales in large-eddy simulation (LES) has been rationalized by the introduction of the dynamic localization procedure. This method allows one to compute rather than prescribe the unknown coefficients in the subgrid-scale model. Formally, the LES equations are supposed to be obtained by applying to the Navier-Stokes equations a 'grid filter' operation. Though the subgrid stress itself is unknown, an identity between subgrid stresses generated by different filters has been derived. Although preliminary tests of the Dynamic Localization Model (DLM) with k-equation have been satisfactory, the use of a negative eddy viscosity to describe backscatter is probably a crude representation of the physics of reverse transfer of energy. Indeed, the model is fully deterministic. Knowing the filtered velocity field and the subgrid-scale energy, the subgrid stress is automatically determined. We know that the LES equations cannot be fully deterministic since the small scales are not resolved. This stems from an important distinction between equilibrium hydrodynamics and turbulence. In equilibrium hydrodynamics, the molecular motions are also not resolved. However, there is a clear separation of scale between these unresolved motions and the relevant hydrodynamic scales. The result of molecular motions can then be separated into an average effect (the molecular viscosity) and some fluctuations. Due to the large number of molecules present in a box with size of the order of the hydrodynamic scale, the ratio between fluctuations and the average effect should be very small (as a result of the 'law of large numbers'). For that reason, the hydrodynamic balance equations are usually purely deterministic. In turbulence, however, there is no clear separation of scale between small and large eddies. In that case, the fluctuations around a deterministic eddy viscosity term could be significant. An eddy noise would then appear through a stochastic term in the subgrid-scale model and could be the source of backscatter.

Carati, Daniele↗
DOE OSTI2016

Thermodynamic Analyses of the LCLS-II Cryogenic Distribution System

The Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) is in the process of being upgraded to a superconducting radio frequency (SRF) accelerator and renamed LCLS-II. This upgrade requires thirty-five 1.3 GHz SRF cryomodules (CM) and two 3.9 GHz CM. A cryogenic distribution system (CDS) is in development by Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory to interconnect the CM Linac with the cryogenic plant (CP). The CDS design utilizes cryogenic helium to support the CM operations with a high temperature thermal shield around 55 K, a low temperature thermal intercepts around 5 K, and a SRF cavity liquid helium supply and sub-atmospheric vapor return both around 2 K. Additionally the design must accommodate a Linac consisting of two parallel cryogenic strings, supported by two independent CP utilizing CDS components such as distribution boxes, transfer lines, feed caps and endcaps. In this paper, we describe the overall layout of the cryogenic distribution system and the major thermodynamic factors which influence the CDS design including heat loads, pressure drops, temperature profiles, and pressure relieving requirements. In addition the paper describes how the models are created to perform the analyses.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
NASA NTRS1988

Estimating the seasonal carbon source-sink geography of a natural, steady-state terrestrial biosphere

The estimation of the seasonal dynamics of biospheric-carbon sources and sinks to be used as an input to global atmospheric CO2 studies and models is discussed. An ecological biosphere model is given and the advantages of the model are examined. Monthly maps of estimated biospheric carbon source and sink regions and estimates of total carbon fluxes are presented for an equilibrium terrestrial biosphere. The results are compared with those from other models. It is suggested that, despite maximum variations of atmospheric CO2 in boreal latitudes, the enormous contributions of tropical wet-dry regions to global atmospheric CO2 seasonality can not be ignored.

Box, Elgene O.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Discovery of a Hand X-Ray Source, SAX J0635+0533, in the Error Box of the Gamma-Ray Source 2EG J0635+0521

We have discovered an X-ray source, SAX J0635+0533, with a hard spectrum within the error box of the GeV gamma-ray source in Monoceros, 2EG J0635+0521. The unabsorbed flux from the source is 1.2 x 10(exp -11) ergs /sq cm s in the 2-10 keV band. The X-ray spectrum is consistent with a simple power-law model with absorption. The photon index is 1.50 +/- 0.08, and we detect emission out to 40 keV. Optical observations identify a counterpart with a V magnitude of 12.8. The counterpart has broad emission lines and the colors of an early B-type star. If the identification of the X-ray/optical source with the gamma-ray source is correct, then the source would be a gamma-ray-emitting X-ray binary.

Kaaret, P.↗
NASA NTRS2003

On the Use of the Log-Normal Particle Size Distribution to Characterize Global Rain

Although most parameterizations of the drop size distributions (DSD) use the gamma function, there are several advantages to the log-normal form, particularly if we want to characterize the large scale space-time variability of the DSD and rain rate. The advantages of the distribution are twofold: the logarithm of any moment can be expressed as a linear combination of the individual parameters of the distribution; the parameters of the distribution are approximately normally distributed. Since all radar and rainfall-related parameters can be written approximately as a moment of the DSD, the first property allows us to express the logarithm of any radar/rainfall variable as a linear combination of the individual DSD parameters. Another consequence is that any power law relationship between rain rate, reflectivity factor, specific attenuation or water content can be expressed in terms of the covariance matrix of the DSD parameters. The joint-normal property of the DSD parameters has applications to the description of the space-time variation of rainfall in the sense that any radar-rainfall quantity can be specified by the covariance matrix associated with the DSD parameters at two arbitrary space-time points. As such, the parameterization provides a means by which we can use the spaceborne radar-derived DSD parameters to specify in part the covariance matrices globally. However, since satellite observations have coarse temporal sampling, the specification of the temporal covariance must be derived from ancillary measurements and models. Work is presently underway to determine whether the use of instantaneous rain rate data from the TRMM Precipitation Radar can provide good estimates of the spatial correlation in rain rate from data collected in 5(sup 0)x 5(sup 0) x 1 month space-time boxes. To characterize the temporal characteristics of the DSD parameters, disdrometer data are being used from the Wallops Flight Facility site where as many as 4 disdrometers have been used to acquire data over a 2 km path. These data should help quantify the temporal form of the covariance matrix at this site.

Meneghini, Robert↗
NASA NTRS2009

Space Flight Plasma Data Analysis

This slide presentation reviews a method to analyze the plasma data that is reported on board the International Space station (ISS). The Floating Potential Measurement Unit (FPMU), the role of which is to obtain floating potential and ionosphere plasma measurements for validation of the ISS charging model, assess photo voltaic array variability and interpreting IRI predictions, is composed of four probes: Floating Potential Probe (FPP), Wide-sweep Langmuir Probe (WLP), Narrow-sweep Langmuir Probe (NLP) and the Plasma Impedance Probe (PIP). This gives redundant measurements of each parameter. There are also many 'boxes' that the data must pass through before being captured by the ground station, which leads to telemetry noise. Methods of analysis for the various signals from the different sets are reviewed. There is also a brief discussion of LP analysis of Low Earth Orbit plasma simulation source.

Wright, Kenneth H.↗
DOE OSTI2016

The FIFE Project at Fermilab

The FabrIc for Frontier Experiments (FIFE) project is an initiative within the Fermilab Scientific Computing Division designed to steer the computing model for non-LHC Fermilab experiments across multiple physics areas. FIFE is a collaborative effort between experimenters and computing professionals to design and develop integrated computing models for experiments of varying size, needs, and infrastructure. The major focus of the FIFE project is the development, deployment, and integration of solutions for high throughput computing, data management, database access and collaboration management within an experiment. To accomplish this goal, FIFE has developed workflows that utilize Open Science Grid compute sites along with dedicated and commercial cloud resources. The FIFE project has made significant progress integrating into experiment computing operations several services including a common job submission service, software and reference data distribution through CVMFS repositories, flexible and robust data transfer clients, and access to opportunistic resources on the Open Science Grid. The progress with current experiments and plans for expansion with additional projects will be discussed. FIFE has taken the leading role in defining the computing model for Fermilab experiments, aided in the design of experiments beyond those hosted at Fermilab, and will continue to define the future direction of high throughput computing for future physics experiments worldwide.

Box, D.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Evaluation of NASA's High-Resolution Global Composition Simulations: Understanding a Pollution Event in the Chesapeake Bay During the Summer 2017 OWLETS Campaign

Recirculation of pollutants due to a bay breeze effect is a key meteorological mechanism impacting air quality near urban coastal areas, but regional and global chemical transport models have historically struggled to capture this phenomenon. We present a case study of a high ozone (O3) episode observed over the Chesapeake Bay during the NASA Ozone Water-Land Environmental Transition Study (OWLETS) in summer 2017. OWLETS included a complementary suite of ground-based and airborne observations, with which we characterize the meteorological and chemical context of this event and develop a framework to evaluate model performance. Two publicly-available NASA global high-resolution coupled chemistry-meteorology models (CCMMs) are investigated: GEOS-CF and MERRA2-GMI. The GEOS-CF R squared value for comparisons between the NASA Sherpa C-23 aircraft measurements to the GEOS-CF resulted in good agreement (R squared: 0.67) on July 19th and fair agreement (R squared: 0.55) for July 20th. Compared to surface observations, we find the GEOS-CF product with a 25 x 25 km squared grid box, at an hourly (R squared: 0.62 to 0.87) and 15-minute (R squared: 0.64 to 0.87) interval for six regional sites outperforms the hourly nominally 50 x 50 km squared gridded MERRA2-GMI (R squared: 0.53 to 0.76) for four of the six sites, suggesting it is better capable of simulating complex chemical and meteorological features associated with ozone transport within the Chesapeake Bay airshed. When the GEOS-CF product was compared to the TOLNet LiDAR observations at both NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel (CBBT), the median differences at LaRC were -6 to 8% and at CBBT were ± 7% between 400 to 2000 m ASL. This indicates that, for this case study, the GEOS-CF is able to simulate surface level ozone diurnal cycles and vertical ozone profiles at small scales between the surface level and 2000 m ASL. Evaluating global chemical model simulations at sub-regional scales will help air quality scientists understand the complex processes occurring at small spatial and temporal scales within complex surface terrain changes, simulating nighttime chemistry and deposition, and the potential to use global chemical transport simulations in support of regional and sub-regional field campaigns.

NASA Ozone Water-Land Environmental Transition Stu↗
DOE OSTI2012

Analysis of moire fringes by Wiener filtering: An extension to the Fourier method

In X-ray Talbot interferometry, tilting the phase grating with respect to the absorption grating results in the formation of spatial fringes. The analysis of this moire pattern, classically performed by the Fourier method, allows the extraction of the sample phase shift information from a single image. In this context, an extension to the Fourier method is proposed. The filter used to extract the fringe information is chosen optimally in the least-squares sense, given models for the zeroth and first order modes, noise and the modulation transfer function. The latter is obtained by measuring the detector response to moire fringes with increasing frequencies. The obtained Wiener filter allows a better reconstruction of the phase information at all fringe frequencies, compared to the usual box or gaussian filters. This is demonstrated quantitatively by experiments using synchrotron radiation.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Modeling stochastic fluctuations in relativistic kinetic theory

Using the information current, we develop a Lorentz-covariant framework for modeling equilibrium fluctuations in relativistic kinetic theory in the grand-canonical ensemble. The resulting stochastic theory is proven to be causal and covariantly stable, and its predictions do not depend on the choice of spacetime foliation used to define the grand-canonical probabilities. As expected, in a box containing N > 5 particles, Boltzmann’s molecular chaos postulate is broken with (almost exact) probability N -1/2 , leading to a breakdown of the Boltzmann equation in small systems. Here, we also verify that, in ultrarelativistic gases, transient hydrodynamics already accounts for at least 80% of the equilibrium fluctuations of the stress-energy tensor at a given time. Finally, we compute the correlators at nonequal times for two selected collision kernels: that of a chemically active diluted solution, and that of ultrarelativistic scalar particles self-interacting via a quartic potential. For the former, we compute the density-density correlators analytically in real space, and dehydrodynamization of the stochastic theory is proven to occur whenever the mean free path diverges at high energy.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗
DOE OSTI2020

Automated label flows for excited states of correlation functions in lattice gauge theory

Extracting excited states from lattice gauge theory correlation functions can be achieved through $χ^2$ minimization fits or algebraic approaches such as the variational method and Prony's method. Performing any kind of error analysis often leads to overlapping confidence regions of model parameters, even when the spectrum is not particularly dense. To correctly estimate errors, one must beware of mislabeling the states. In this work, we provide an algorithm that we call automated label flows which consistently and systematically identifies a deterministic labeling of states. This is a black-box approach in the sense that it gives a sensible set of labels without user guidance. Further, as an example, we pair one black box method with another, analyzing a lattice correlation function from real data using automated label flows in the context of Prony's method.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
NASA NTRS1987

Compact X-ray binaries in hierarchical triples. I - Tidal angular momentum loss and GX 17 + 2

A general formalism is developed for the enhanced mass transfer rate expected in a close binary with a (distant) third companion star. Such a hierarchical triple model is applied to the X-ray burster and QPO source GX 17 + 2, consisting of an inner mass-transferring binary comprising a main-sequence secondary and an accreting neutron star, and a more distant companion. The model is shown to account for the anomalously high mass transfer rate for this burster and other systems with short orbital periods. A G star, which does not appear to be the binary companion of the neutron star but is consistent with the sub-arc second radio error box for GX 17 + 2, may be the triple companion. A predicted velocity curve for the triple companion is presented.

Bailyn, Charles D.↗
DOE OSTI2016

Effects of EMF Emissions from Cables and Junction Boxes on Marine Species

Studies have shown that diverse aquatic species are electrosensitive. Many fishes, and marine mammals, can either detect, navigate by, or are affected by electromagnetic fields (EMF) with various sensitivities, and their behavior may be impacted by unnatural EMF emissions in the water column. Sharks, rays and skates are known to have the highest sensitivity to electric fields. Electric field emissions in the range 0.5–100 micro volt/m appear to attract them, and emissions over 100 micro volt/m to repulse them. A marine hydrokinetic MHK device will have multiple components and associated multiple submarine cables on the seafloor and running through the water column and would potentially increase the level of EMF emissions to which the marine species at the site may be exposed to. There are therefore concerns amongst stakeholders that EMF emissions associated with MHK devices and their components may act as barriers to species migration, cause disorientation, change community compositions and ecosystems, and that they may attract sharks, leading to a local increase in the risk of shark attacks. However, field data to validate and model potential relationships between observed responses and the EMF emissions in situ are sparse. A program of experimental field surveys were conducted off the coast of South Florida, USA to characterize the electromagnetic field (EMF) emissions in the water column from a submarine cable, and to monitor for responses of local aquatic species. The field surveys were conducted at the South Florida Ocean Measurement Facility (SFOMF) off Fort Lauderdale, which is a cabled offshore in-water navy range. It consists of multiple active submarine power cables and a number of junction boxes, with the capability to transmit AC/DC power at a range of strength and frequencies. The site includes significant marine life activities and community structure, including highly mobile species, such as sharks, stingrays, mammals and turtles. SFOMF therefore typifies a setting representative of an offshore location where a MHK device may be sited. Background electromagnetic field (EMF) levels and EMF emissions due to submarine cables were measured using a custom E-field sensor and a commercial magnetometer deployed from an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) at various fixed altitudes above the seafloor. EMF signatures detected from power cables and junction boxes are contrasted against ambient background levels and other EMF sources. The potential responses of local marine species were observed at selected representative locations using divers on SCUBA, complemented with fixed cameras on the sea bottom and by a set of video cameras mounted on the AUV. The objectives of the study were: 1) to characterize the EMF emission levels associated with submarine cables 2) to monitor potential responses of aquatic animals to the emissions and 3) to develop an associated database of field observations. As control, observations of EMF levels and in situ marine species were conducted with power in the cable turned off. Good quality measurements of EMF emissions were obtained using the mobile AUV platform and the data from the surveys were used to develop contour maps of the EMF levels in the water column above the live cable as well as to provide information about how the field decays away from the cable. The measurements show good agreement with theoretical models of the how EMF levels decay away from the cable in deep and shallow water environment. Electric fields in excess of 200µV/m were measured in the vicinity of the cable during the power on state. Quarterly surveys by SCUBA divers were conducted, using point and transect count methods, over a period of one year at three locations, one at a shallow site where the water depth is approximately 5m, and the other at the Barracuda Reef where the water depth is approximately 10m. The sampling results were analyzed to determine if the presence of an SFOMF generated EMF alters: (1) abundance, species richness, and assemblage structure of coral reef fishes, (2) the behavior of fishes including elasmobranchs, and (3) the distribution of marine turtles and mammals. Diver observations were also used in attempt to discern if there were any noticeable organismal responses during the transitional period between ambient OFF to energized AC or DC power states, and video footage was intended to augment the in-situ visual survey data and aid in interpretation of the results. Comparisons are provided between observation datasets between the three sites and between the point and transect count methods. Presence of several individual elasmobranch species, including sharks and stingrays, were recorded during the surveys. No apparent effect on richness could be discerned between the power on and off states. No apparent sudden animal movements were observed during transitions between power states.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2014

Ethyl pyruvate inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma via regulation of the HMGB1–RAGE and AKT pathways

Highlights: • Ethyl pyruvate inhibits liver cancer. • Promotes apoptosis. • Decreased the expression of HMGB1, p-Akt. - Abstract: Ethyl pyruvate (EP) was recently identified as a stable lipophilic derivative of pyruvic acid with significant antineoplastic activities. The high mobility group box-B1 (HMGB1)–receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) and the protein kinase B (Akt) pathways play a crucial role in tumorigenesis and development of many malignant tumors. We tried to observe the effects of ethyl pyruvate on liver cancer growth and explored its effects in hepatocellular carcinoma model. In this study, three hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines were treated with ethyl pyruvate. An MTT colorimetric assay was used to assess the effects of EP on cell proliferation. Flow cytometry and TUNEL assays were used to analyze apoptosis. Real-time PCR, Western blotting and immunofluorescence demonstrated ethyl pyruvate reduced the HMGB1–RAGE and AKT pathways. The results of hepatoma orthotopic tumor model verified the antitumor effects of ethyl pyruvate in vivo. EP could induce apoptosis and slow the growth of liver cancer. Moreover, EP decreased the expression of HMGB1, RAGE, p-AKT and matrix metallopeptidase-9 (MMP9) and increased the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that ethyl pyruvate induces apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in G phase in hepatocellular carcinoma cells, plays a critical role in the treatment of cancer.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Establishing reference ranges for circulating biomarkers of drug‐induced liver injury in healthy human volunteers 1

Aims The potential of mechanistic biomarkers to improve prediction of drug‐induced liver injury (DILI) and hepatic regeneration is widely acknowledged. We sought to determine reference intervals for new biomarkers of DILI and regeneration, as well as to characterize their natural variability and impact of diurnal variation. Methods Serum samples from 227 healthy volunteers were recruited as part of a cross‐sectional study; of these, 25 subjects had weekly serial sampling over 3 weeks, while 23 had intensive blood sampling over a 24h period. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), MicroRNA‐122 (miR‐122), High Mobility Group Box‐1 (HMGB1), total Keratin‐18 (K18), caspase‐cleaved Keratin‐18 (ccK18), Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GLDH) and Macrophage Colony‐Stimulating Factor‐1 (CSF‐1) were assayed. Results Reference intervals were established for each biomarker based on the 97.5% quantile (90% CI) following the assessment of fixed effects in univariate and multivariable models. Intra‐individual variability was found to be non‐significant, and there was no significant impact of diurnal variation. Conclusion Reference intervals for novel DILI biomarkers have been described. An upper limit of a reference range might represent the most appropriate mechanism to utilize these data. These data can now be used to interpret data from exploratory clinical DILI studies and to assist their further qualification as required by regulatory authorities.

Jorgensen, Andrea L. [Department of Health Data Sc↗
NASA NTRS2003

Some Advanced Concepts in Discrete Aerodynamic Sensitivity Analysis

An efficient incremental iterative approach for differentiating advanced flow codes is successfully demonstrated on a two-dimensional inviscid model problem. The method employs the reverse-mode capability of the automatic differentiation software tool ADIFOR 3.0 and is proven to yield accurate first-order aerodynamic sensitivity derivatives. A substantial reduction in CPU time and computer memory is demonstrated in comparison with results from a straightforward, black-box reverse-mode applicaiton of ADIFOR 3.0 to the same flow code. An ADIFOR-assisted procedure for accurate second-rder aerodynamic sensitivity derivatives is successfully verified on an inviscid transonic lifting airfoil example problem. The method requires that first-order derivatives are calculated first using both the forward (direct) and reverse (adjoinct) procedures; then, a very efficient noniterative calculation of all second-order derivatives can be accomplished. Accurate second derivatives (i.e., the complete Hesian matrices) of lift, wave drag, and pitching-moment coefficients are calculated with respect to geometric shape, angle of attack, and freestream Mach number.

Taylor, Arthur C., III↗
NASA NTRS2006

A Summary of the Experimental Results for a Generic Tractor-Trailer in the Ames Research Center 7- by 10-Foot and 12-Foot Wind Tunnels

Experimental measurements of a generic tractor-trailer were obtained in two wind tunnels at Ames Research Center. After a preliminary study at atmospheric conditions in the 7- by 10-Foot Wind Tunnel, additional testing was conducted at Reynolds numbers corresponding to full-scale highway speeds in the 12-Foot Pressure Wind Tunnel. To facilitate computational modeling, the 1:8-scale geometry, designated the Generic Conventional Model, included a simplified underbody and omitted many small-scale details. The measurements included overall and component forces and moments, static and dynamic surface pressures, and three-component particle image velocimetry. This summary report highlights the effects of numerous drag reduction concepts and provides details of the model installation in both wind tunnels. To provide a basis for comparison, the wind-averaged drag coefficient was tabulated for all configurations tested. Relative to the baseline configuration representative of a modern class-8 tractor-trailer, the most effective concepts were the trailer base flaps and trailer belly box providing a drag-coefficient reduction of 0.0855 and 0.0494, respectively. Trailer side skirts were less effective yielding a drag reduction of 0.0260. The database of this experimental effort is publicly available for further analysis.

Storms, Bruce L.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Behind the Meter Storage for Electric Vehicle Charging, Electrochemical and Thermal Energy Storage, and Solar Photovoltaic

In response to the potentially large and irregular demand from EVs, along with changing load profiles from buildings with on-site generation, utilities are evaluating multiple options for managing dynamic loads, including time-of-use pricing, demand charges, battery storage, and curtailment of variable generation. Buildings, as well as commercial, public, and workplace EV charging operations, can use a combination of electrochemical battery storage and thermal energy storage coupled with on-site generation to manage energy costs as well as provide resiliency and reliability for EV charging and building energy loads. We are completing a behind the meter storage analysis that focuses on determining the optimal system designs and energy flows for thermal and electrochemical behind the meter storage with on-site solar photovoltaic (PV) generation enabling electric vehicle charging in various climates, building types, and utility rate structures. In completing this analysis, we have developed a tool that combines existing battery models via the System Advisor Model (SAM) and building modeling software via EnergyPlus into a single interface. This tool allows us to simulate a building with a detailed battery model to properly size the battery, thermal energy storage, and solar PV systems to maximize profit for the system owner. This also allows us to assess how the battery degrades under various supervisory control dispatch algorithms to control charging/discharging; we can also see how thermal energy storage is created and used to complement the battery to reduce thermal loads in the building. With this project, we can analyze new batteries that are designed specifically for energy storage, rather than designed to be extremely energy dense for electric vehicle applications, using battery lifetime models from other national labs and the existing SAM battery model, which has detailed lifetime and degradation parameters. We can also assess novel thermal storage technologies by integrating them into the whole building energy simulation program EnergyPlus. Because the model calls both SAM and EnergyPlus, required inputs need to be compatible for both models. These inputs include, on a high-level, the following: weather files, building and electric vehicle load profiles, electricity rate tariff information, and system cost information for the stationary battery, solar PV, and thermal storage system. The various buildings we are studying for this analysis are retail big-box grocery store, commercial office building, fleet vehicle depot and operations facility, multi-family residential, and electric vehicle charging station. For these different applications, the battery and thermal storage will be dispatched differently, and the various technologies are sized differently to optimize cost.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗