Wind-tunnel investigation of an NACA full-span high-lift lateral-control combination I : section characteristics, NACA 23012 airfoil
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WING FLAPS, SLOTTED & AILERONS, SLOTTED↗
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Space shuttle: Aerodynamic stability and control characteristics of the NASA/MSC .006 scale 040-A delta wing orbiter
Experimental aerodynamic investigations were made on a .006 scale model 040-A delta wing space shuttle orbiter configuration. These tests were conducted to determine six-degree-of-freedom force and moment data for preliminary stability and control analysis. Data were obtained over a Mach number range from 0.6 to 4.96 at angles of attack from -10 deg to 50 deg at zero degrees sideslip and at angles of sideslip from -10 deg to 10 deg at constants angles of attack of 0 deg, 15 deg, 30 deg, and 45 deg. Various aileron, elevator, (elevon) rudder and rudder flare deflection angles were tested to establish the control effectiveness and vehicle stability. Model component buildup data were also obtained to provide a data base for future configuration modifications. Plotted data results are presented in both the body and stability axis system.
Click, P. L.↗
Cabin-fuselage-wing structural design concept with engine installation
The purpose of this project is to provide a fuselage structural assembly and wing structural design that will be able to withstand the given operational parameters and loads provided by Federal Aviation Regulation Part 23 (FAR 23) and the Statement of Work (SOW). The goal is to provide a durable lightweight structure that will transfer the applied loads through the most efficient load path. Areas of producibility and maintainability of the structure will also be addressed. All of the structural members will also meet or exceed the desired loading criteria, along with providing adequate stiffness, reliability, and fatigue life as stated in the SOW. Considerations need to be made for control system routing and cabin heating/ventilation. The goal of the wing structure and carry through structure is also to provide a simple, lightweight structure that will transfer the aerodynamic forces produced by the wing, tailboom, and landing gear. These forces will be channeled through various internal structures sized for the pre-determined loading criteria. Other considerations were to include space for flaps, ailerons, fuel tanks, and electrical and control system routing. The difficulties encountered in the fuselage design include expanding the fuselage cabin to accept a third occupant in a staggered configuration and providing ample volume for their safety. By adding a third person the CG of aircraft will move forward so the engine needs to be moved aft to compensate for the difference in the moment. This required the provisions of a ring frame structure for the new position of the engine mount. The difficulties encountered in the wing structural design include resizing the wing for the increased capacity and weight, and compensating for a large torsion produced by the tail boom by placing a great number of stiffeners inside the boom, which will result in the relocation of the fuel tank. Finally, an adequate carry through structure for the wing and fuselage interface will be designed to effectively transmit loads through the fuselage.
Ariotti, Scott↗
The effect of lateral controls in producing motion of an airplane as computed from wind-tunnel data
An analytical study of the lateral controllability of an airplane has been made in which both the static rolling and yawing moments supplied by the controls and the reactions due to the inherent stability of the airplane have been taken into account. A hypothetical average airplane, embodying the essential characteristics of both the wind tunnel models and the full size test airplanes, was assumed for the study. Computations made of forced rolling and yawing motions of an F-22 airplane caused by a sudden deflection of the ailerons were found to agree well with actual measurements of these motions. The conditions following instantaneous full deflections of the lateral control have been studied, and some attention has been devoted to the controlling of complete turn maneuvers.
Weick, F. E.↗
Analysis and design of sidestick controller systems for general aviation aircraft
A method to design sidestick controllers for general aviation aircraft with reversible flight controls is proposed. The use of a sidestick in this type of flight vehicle generally increases the stick forces required for maneuvering; this is due to a reduction in the moment arm of application of the force. In the present study, the reduction of stick forces is achieved by incorporating geared tabs in the control-surface design. A complete analysis using the rigid-body aircraft longitudinal equations of motion and stick-force equation in coupled form is carried out. Lateral stick forces are predicted by solving the single-degree-of-freedom roll approximation and aileron stick-force equations. Data are presented for configurations with various tab areas and a wide range of gearing ratios. The results indicate that the method can be used successfully for geared-tab design and stick-force prediction. It is shown that gearing-ratio selection is critical but that tab area does not have a significant impact on the magnitude of stick forces and stick force to stick deflection gradients.
Martin, Daniel M.↗
Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Large-Scale Unswept Wing-Body-Tail Configuration with Blowing Applied Over the Flap and Wind Leading Edge
An investigation has been conducted in the Langley full-scale tunnel to determine the effects of a blowing boundary-layer-control lift-augmentation system on the aerodynamic characteristics of a large-scale model of a fighter-type airplane. The wing was unswept at the 70-percent- chord station, had an aspect ratio of 2.86, a taper ratio of 0.40, and 4-percent-thick biconvex airfoil sections parallel to the plane of symmetry. The tests were conducted over a range of angles of attack from approximately -4 deg to 23 deg for a Reynolds number of approximately 5.2 x 10(exp 6) which corresponds to a Mach number of 0.08. Blowing rates were normally restricted to values just sufficient to control air-flow separation. The results of this investigation showed that wing leading-edge blowing in combination with large values of wing leading-edge-flap deflection was a very effective leading-edge flow-control device for wings having highly loaded trailing-edge flaps. With leading-edge blowing there was no hysteresis of the lift, drag, and pitching-moment characteristics upon recovery from stall. End plates were found to improve the lift and drag characteristics of the test configuration in the moderate angle-of-attack range, and blockage to one-quarter of the blowing-slot area was not detrimental to the aerodynamic characteristics. Blowing boundary-layer control resulted in a considerably reduced landing speed and reduced landing and take-off distances. The ailerons were very effective lateral-control devices when used with blowing flaps.
McLemore, H. Clyde↗
Nonlinear Dynamic Control Derivative Analysis for Aircraft with Application to Transonic Truss-Braced Wing
This paper presents the development of a nonlinear dynamic control derivative estimation method. A nonlinear aerodynamic model is developed to account for the effects of large control surface deflections on aircraft aerodynamic forces and moments. A series of unsteady RANS CFD simulations is performed to simulate the control surface oscillations at various reduced frequencies. The time-domain data are transformed into the frequency-domain data by a Fourier series analysis. Transfer functions of the dynamic control derivatives are then estimated by a frequency-domain regression. The method is applied to the Transonic Truss-Braced Wing (TTBW) to estimate the dynamic control derivatives for the elevator, aileron, and rudder.
Aircraft Control Derivatives↗
Wind tunnel and ground static tests of a .094 scale powered model of a modified T-39 lift/cruise fan V/STOL research airplane
Ground static and wind tunnel test of a scale model modified T-39 airplane are reported. The configuration in the nose and replacement of the existing nacelles with tilting lift/cruise fans. The model was powered with three 14 cm diameter tip driven turbopowered simulators. Forces and moments were measured by an internal strain guage balance. Engine simulator thrust and mass flow were measured by calibrated pressure and temperature instrumentation mounted downstream of the fans. The low speed handling qualities and general aerodynamic characteristics of the modified T-39 were defined. Test variables include thrust level and thrust balance, forward speed, model pitch and sideslip angle at forward speeds, model pitch, roll, and ground height during static tests, lift/cruise fan tilt angle, flap and aileron deflection angle, and horizonal stabilizer angle. The effects of removing the landing gear, the lift/cruise fans, and the tail surfaces were also investigated.
Hunt, D.↗
Additional Results on the Static Longitudinal and Lateral Stability Characteristics of a 0.05-Scale Model of the Convair F2Y-1 Airplane at High Subsonic Speeds
Additional results on the static longitudinal and lateral stability characteristics of a 0.05-scale model of the Convair F2Y-1 water-based fighter airplane were obtained in the Langley high-speed 7- by 10-foot tunnel over a Mach number range of 0.50 to 0.92. The maximum angle-of-attack range (obtained at the lower Mach numbers) was from -2 degrees to 25 degrees. The sideslip-angle range investigated was from -4 degrees to 12 degrees. The investigation included effects of various arrangements of wing fences, leading-edge chord-extensions, and leading-edge notches. Various fuselage fences, spoilers, and a dive brake also were investigated. From overall considerations of lift, drag, and pitching moments, it appears that there were two modifications somewhat superior to any of the others investigated: One was a configuration that employed a full-chord fence and a partial-chord fence located at 0.63 semispan and 0.55 semispan, respectively. The second was a leading-edge chord-extension that extended from 0.68 semispan to 0.85 semispan in combination with a leading-edge notch located at 0.68 semispan. With plus or minus 10 degrees aileron, the estimated wing-tip helix angle was reduced from 0.125 at a Mach number of 0.50 to 0.088 at a Mach number of 0.92, with corresponding rates of roll of 4.0 and 5.2 radians per second. The upper aft fuselage dive brake, when deflected 30 degrees and 60 degrees, reduced the rudder effectiveness about 10 to 20 percent and about 35 to 50 percent, respectively.
Spreeman, Kenneth P.↗
Effects of thrust reversing in ground proximity
The changes in stability and control characteristics encountered by a thrust reversing aircraft during its final approach, landing, and ground roll are described. These changes include a strong pitch-up accompanied by the loss of horizontal tail and aileron control effectiveness. The magnitude of reverser induced changes in ground effect are much larger than corresponding changes in free air. Some unexpected unsteady motions exhibited in wind tunnel by an aircraft model with reversers operating in ground proximity are also described. The cause of this oscillatory behavior was determined to be an unsteady interaction between the wall jets formed by impingement of reverser jets on the ground and the on-coming free stream. Time histories of rolling moments measured by the wind tunnel balance or support system were removed and frequencies were scaled by Strouhal number to full scale. Corrected time series were used to simulate the motion of a fighter aircraft with thrust reversers in ground effect. The simulation predicted large roll angles and nose down attitude at touchdown. Some phenomena of jet attachment to solid surfaces are discussed and areas for future research are recommended.
Joshi, P. B.↗
Results of an aerodynamic investigation of a space shuttle orbiter/747 carrier flight test configuration to determine separation characteristics utilizing 0.0125-scale models (48-0/AX1318I-1) in the LTV 4 x 4 foot high speed wind tunnel (CA26), volume 1
Results of tests conducted on a 0.0125-scale model of the Space Shuttle Orbiter and a 0.0125-scale model of the 747 CAM configuration in a 4 x 4-foot High Speed Wind Tunnel were presented. Force and moment data were obtained for each vehicle separately at a Mach number of 0.6 and for each vehicle in proximity to the other at Mach numbers of 0.3, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.7. The proximity effects of each vehicle on the other at separation distances (from the mated configuration) ranging from 1.5 feet to 75 feet were presented; 747 Carrier angles of attack from 0 deg to 6 deg and angles of sideslip of 0 deg and -5 deg were tested. Model variables included orbiter elevon, aileron and body flap deflections, orbiter tailcone on and off, and 747 stabilizer and rudder deflections.
Gillins, R. L.↗
Multi-Axis Identifiability Using Single-Surface Parameter Estimation Maneuvers on the X-48B Blended Wing Body
The problem of parameter estimation on hybrid-wing-body type aircraft is complicated by the fact that many design candidates for such aircraft involve a large number of aero- dynamic control effectors that act in coplanar motion. This fact adds to the complexity already present in the parameter estimation problem for any aircraft with a closed-loop control system. Decorrelation of system inputs must be performed in order to ascertain individual surface derivatives with any sort of mathematical confidence. Non-standard control surface configurations, such as clamshell surfaces and drag-rudder modes, further complicate the modeling task. In this paper, asymmetric, single-surface maneuvers are used to excite multiple axes of aircraft motion simultaneously. Time history reconstructions of the moment coefficients computed by the solved regression models are then compared to each other in order to assess relative model accuracy. The reduced flight-test time required for inner surface parameter estimation using multi-axis methods was found to come at the cost of slightly reduced accuracy and statistical confidence for linear regression methods. Since the multi-axis maneuvers captured parameter estimates similar to both longitudinal and lateral-directional maneuvers combined, the number of test points required for the inner, aileron-like surfaces could in theory have been reduced by 50%. While trends were similar, however, individual parameters as estimated by a multi-axis model were typically different by an average absolute difference of roughly 15-20%, with decreased statistical significance, than those estimated by a single-axis model. The multi-axis model exhibited an increase in overall fit error of roughly 1-5% for the linear regression estimates with respect to the single-axis model, when applied to flight data designed for each, respectively.
Ratnayake, Nalin A.↗
Experimental Results of Winglets on First, Second, and Third Generation Jet Transports
Results of wind tunnel investigations of four jet transport configurations representing both narrow and wide-body configurations and also a future advanced aerodynamic configuration are presented including performance and wing root bending moment data. The effects of winglets on the aerodynamic characteristics throughout the flight envelope were studied. The results indicate that winglets improved the cruise lift to drag ratio between 4 and 8 percent, depending on the transport configuration. The data also indicate that ratios of relative aerodynamic gain to relative structural weight penalty for winglets are 1.5 to 2.5 times those for wing-tip extensions. Over the complete range of flight conditions, winglets produce no adverse effects on buffet onset, lateral-directional stability, and aileron control effectiveness.
Flechner, S. G.↗
Transonic wind tunnel test of a 14 percent thick oblique wing
An experimental investigation was conducted at the ARC 11- by 11-Foot Transonic Wind Tunnel as part of the Oblique Wing Research Aircraft Program to study the aerodynamic performance and stability characteristics of a 0.087-scale model of an F-8 airplane fitted with an oblique wing designed by Rockwell International. The 10.3 aspect ratio, straight-tapered wing of 0.14 thickness/chord ratio was tested at two different mounting heights above the fuselage. Additional tests were conducted to assess low-speed behavior with and without flaps, aileron effectiveness at representative flight conditions, and transonic drag divergence with 0 degree wing sweep. Longitudinal stability data were obtained at sweep angles of 0, 30, 45, 60, and 65 degrees, at Mach numbers ranging from 0.25 to 1.40. Test Reynolds numbers varied from 3.2 to 6.6 x 10 exp 6/ft. and angle of attack ranged from -5 to +18 degrees. Most data were taken at zero sideslip, but a few runs were at sideslip angles of +/- 5 degrees. The raised wing position proved detrimental overall, although side force and yawing moment were reduced at some conditions. Maximum lift coefficient with the flaps deflected was found to fall short of the value predicted in the preliminary design document. The performance and trim characteristics of the present wing are generally inferior to those obtained for a previously tested wing designed at ARC.
Kennelly, Robert A., Jr.↗
Experimental results of winglets on first, second, and third generation jet transports
The results of wind tunnel investigations of winglets on four jet transport configurations are presented. Performance and wing root bending moment data were given. Additionally, detailed aerodynamic characteristics are presented at the design condition and also at several off design conditions for one configuration. Results of the investigations indicate that the winglets improve the cruise lift to drag ratio between 4 and 8 percent. These data also show that the ratios of relative aerodynamic gain to relative structural weight penalty for winglets are 1.5 to 2.5 times the ratios for wing tip extensions. The comprehensive investigation of the effects of winglets indicated that winglets produce no adverse effects on buffet onset, lateral directional stability, and aileron control effectiveness.
Flechner, S. G.↗
Stability and control characteristics of an airplane model having a 45.1 degree swept-back wing with aspect ratio 2.50 and taper ratio 0.42 and a 42.8 degree swept-back horizontal tail with aspect ratio 3.87 and taper ratio 0.49
Tests were made of an airplane model having a 45.1 degree swept-back wing with aspect ratio 2.50 and taper ratio 0.42 and a 42.8 degree swept-back horizontal tail with aspect ratio 3.87 and taper ratio 0.49 to determine its low-speed stability and control characteristics. The test Reynolds number was 2.87 x 10(6) based on a mean aerodynamic chord of 2.47 feet except for some of the aileron tests which were made at a Reynolds number of 2.05 x 10(6). With the horizontal tail located near the fuselage juncture on the vertical tail, model results indicated static longitudinal instability above a lift coefficient that was 0.15 below the lift coefficient at which stall occurred. Static longitudinal stability, however, was manifested throughout the life range with the horizontal tail located near the top of the vertical tail. The use of 10 degrees negative dihedral on the wing had little effect on the static longitudinal stability characteristics. Preliminary tests of the complete model revealed an undesirable flat spot in the yawing-moment curves at low angles of attack, the directional stability being neutral for yaw angles of plus-or-minus 2 degrees. This undesirable characteristic was improved by replacing the thick original vertical tail with a thin vertical tail and by flattening the top of the dorsal fairing.
Schuldenfrei, Marvin↗
Space shuttle: Aerodynamic stability, control effectiveness and drag characteristics of a shuttle orbiter configuration at Mach numbers from 0.6 to 4.96
Experimental aerodynamic investigations were conducted in the NASA/MSFC 14-inch Trisonic Wind Tunnel from Sept. 27 to Oct. 7, 1972 on a 0.004 scale model of the NR ATP baseline shuttle orbiter configuration. Six component aerodynamic force and moment data were recorded at 0 deg sideslip angle over an angle of attack range from 0 to 20 deg for Mach numbers of 0.6 to 4.96, 20 to 40 deg for Mach numbers of 0.6, 0.9, 2.99, and 4.96, and 40 to 60 deg for Mach numbers of 2.99 and 4.96. Data were obtained over a sideslip range of -10 to 10 deg at 0, 10, and 20 deg angles of attack over the Mach range and 30 and 50 deg at Mach numbers of 2.99 and 4.96. The purpose of the test was to define the buildup, performance, stability, and control characteristics of the orbiter configuration. The model parameters, were: body alone; body-wing; body-wing-tail; elevon deflections of 0, 10, -20, and -40 deg both full and split); aileron deflections of plus or minus 10 deg (full and split); rudder flares of 10 and 40 deg, and a rudder deflection of 15 deg about the 10 and 40 deg flare positions.
Ramsey, P. E.↗
STOL Characteristics of a Propeller-Driven, Aspect-Ratio-10, Straight-Wing Airplane with Boundary-Layer Control Flaps, as Estimated from Large-Scale Wind-Tunnel Tests
A study is presented of the improvements in take-off and landing distances possible with a conventional propeller-driven transport-type airplane when the available lift is increased by propeller slipstream effects and by very effective trailing-edge flaps and ailerons. This study is based on wind-tunnel tests of a 45-foot span, powered model, with BLC on the trailing-edge flaps and controls. The data were applied to an assumed airplane with four propellers and a wing loading of 50 pounds per square foot. Also included is an examination of the stability and control problems that may result in the landing and take-off speed range of such a vehicle. The results indicated that the landing and take-off distances could be more than halved by the use of highly effective flaps in combination with large amounts of engine power to augment lift (STOL). At the lowest speeds considered (about 50 knots), adequate longitudinal stability was obtained but the lateral and directional stability were unsatisfactory. At these low speeds, the conventional aerodynamic control surfaces may not be able to cope with the forces and moments produced by symmetric, as well as asymmetric, engine operation. This problem was alleviated by BLC applied to the control surfaces.
Weiberg, James A↗