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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2012

Printable Spacecraft: Flexible Electronic Platforms for NASA Missions

Atmospheric confetti. Inchworm crawlers. Blankets of ground penetrating radar. These are some of the unique mission concepts which could be enabled by a printable spacecraft. Printed electronics technology offers enormous potential to transform the way NASA builds spacecraft. A printed spacecraft's low mass, volume and cost offer dramatic potential impacts to many missions. Network missions could increase from a few discrete measurements to tens of thousands of platforms improving areal density and system reliability. Printed platforms could be added to any prime mission as a low-cost, minimum resource secondary payload to augment the science return. For a small fraction of the mass and cost of a traditional lander, a Europa flagship mission might carry experimental printed surface platforms. An Enceladus Explorer could carry feather-light printed platforms to release into volcanic plumes to measure composition and impact energies. The ability to print circuits directly onto a variety of surfaces, opens the possibility of multi-functional structures and membranes such as "smart" solar sails and balloons. The inherent flexibility of a printed platform allows for in-situ re-configurability for aerodynamic control or mobility. Engineering telemetry of wheel/soil interactions are possible with a conformal printed sensor tape fit around a rover wheel. Environmental time history within a sample return canister could be recorded with a printed sensor array that fits flush to the interior of the canister. Phase One of the NIAC task entitled "Printable Spacecraft" investigated the viability of printed electronics technologies for creating multi-functional spacecraft platforms. Mission concepts and architectures that could be enhanced or enabled with this technology were explored. This final report captures the results and conclusions of the Phase One study. First, the report presents the approach taken in conducting the study and a mapping of results against the proposed Phase One objectives. Then an overview of the general field of printed electronics is provided, including manufacturing approaches, commercial drivers, and the current state of integrated systems. The bulk of the report contains the results and findings of Phase One organized into four sections: a survey of components required for a printable spacecraft, technology roadmaps considerations, science mission and engineering applications, and potential risks and challenges of the technology.

Spacecraft↗
NASA NTRS2016

Toward Large-Area Sub-Arcsecond X-Ray Telescopes II

In order to advance significantly scientific objectives, future x-ray astronomy missions will likely call for x-ray telescopes with large aperture areas (approx. = 3 sq m) and fine angular resolution (approx. = 1"). Achieving such performance is programmatically and technologically challenging due to the mass and envelope constraints of space-borne telescopes and to the need for densely nested grazing-incidence optics. Such an x-ray telescope will require precision fabrication, alignment, mounting, and assembly of large areas (approx. = 600 sq m) of lightweight (approx. = 2 kg/sq m areal density) high-quality mirrors, at an acceptable cost (approx. = 1 M$/sq m of mirror surface area). This paper reviews relevant programmatic and technological issues, as well as possible approaches for addressing these issues-including direct fabrication of monocrystalline silicon mirrors, active (in-space adjustable) figure correction of replicated mirrors, static post-fabrication correction using ion implantation, differential erosion or deposition, and coating-stress manipulation of thin substrates.

Shi Ye↗
NASA NTRS2017

Surface Monitoring of CFRP Structures for Adhesive Bonding

Adhesive bonding of composite materials requires reliable monitoring and detection of surface contaminants to assure robust and durable bonded structures. Surface treatment and effective monitoring prior to bonding is essential in order to obtain a surface free from contaminants that may degrade structural performance. Two techniques which monitor the effectiveness of the laser surface treatment of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials are being investigated: laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and optically stimulated electron emission (OSEE). The applicability of LIBS to detect silicone contaminants on CFRP composites is studied using ~35 ns Nd:YAG laser pulses at 355 nm with a pulse energy of 45 mJ. The LIBS regime in which pulse energies are < 100 mJ is referred to as mLIBS. CFRP surfaces were contaminated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a major component of silicone based mold release agents. The presence of PDMS is found by inspecting the Si I emission line at 288.2 nm. Untreated CFRP samples and CFRP contaminated with PDMS were tested. The PDMS areal density ranged from 0.36 Â+/- 0.04 to 0.51 Â+/- 0.16 mg/cm2. The results demonstrate the successful detection of PDMS on CFRP using mLIBS. In addition, OSEE was used to measure CFRP surface cleanliness pre- and post-treatment by laser ablation on specimens contaminated with PDMS coatings from 8 nm to 1311 nm in thickness. The results showed a significant increase in the OSEE photocurrent after laser surface treatment.

Ledesma, Rodolfo↗
NASA NTRS2017

Rapid Generation of Large Dimension Photon Sieve Designs

A photon sieve is a revolutionary optical instrument that provides high resolution imaging at a fraction of the weight of typical telescopes (areal density of 0.3 kg/m2 compared to 25 kg/m2 for the James Webb Space Telescope). The photon sieve is a variation of a Fresnel Zone Plate consisting of many small holes spread out in a ring-like pattern, which focuses light of a specific wavelength by diffraction. The team at NASA Langley Research Center has produced a variety of small photon sieves for testing. However, it is necessary to increase both the scale and rate of production, as a single sieve previously took multiple weeks to design and fabricate. This report details the different methods used in producing photon sieve designs in two file formats: CIF and DXF. The difference between these methods, and the two file formats were compared, to determine the most efficient design process. Finally, a step-by-step sieve design and fabrication process was described. The design files can be generated in both formats using an editing tool such as Microsoft Excel. However, an approach using a MATLAB program reduced the computing time of the designs and increased the ability of the user to generate large photon sieve designs. Although the CIF generation process was deemed the most efficient, the design techniques for both file types have been proven to generate complete photon sieves that can be used for scientific applications

Hariharan, Shravan↗
NASA NTRS2019

Modular Active Self-Assembling Space Telescope Swarms

The Phase I study included a detailed exploration of a specific mission concept based on this architecture - a 31-meter diameter version of the LUVOIR (Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor) mission concept with the same wavelength coverage and wave-front quality requirements. The study focused on establishing the feasibility of the proposed concept with respect to what were identified as the most challenging aspects of the mission: the ability to find orbital solutions using solar sail propulsion for both the initial transfers and subsequent rendezvous trajectories; and the ability to generate the required final primary mirror surface out of uniformly polished individual module mirrors using deformation via mechanical degrees of freedom. As a result of the Phase I work it was shown that both orbital and optical solutions are feasible, but will require technology advancement in multiple key areas. In particular, improvements to solar sail areal densities and loading factors will allow us to more easily find fully general solutions for the transfer trajectories, while lower mass, ultra-precise cryogenic linear actuators will likely be needed to form the final mirror shape. However, it was found that current state of the art in solar sails was sufficient for rendezvous trajectories once on-orbit, that the requisite wave-front quality could be achieved with actuation requirements not more stringent than those being carried by LUVOIR, and that there exists a well-defined design space in which the module spacecraft designs can be optimized. The technology development required to progress this work overlaps significantly with numerous NASA technology roadmaps, as well as the Exoplanet Exploration Program's technologies gap list, meaning that continued development of this concept would directly benefit a variety of NASA programs, as well as enabling the completely unique capabilities provided by a 31-meter optical space telescope...Our architecture requires only a single module type allowing us to directly leverage the cost and efficiency benefits of true mass production, in direct contrast to previously explored self-assembling swarm concepts, which typically include multiple module types.

Astronomy↗
NASA NTRS2017

Surface Characterization of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers by Picosecond Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Adhesive bonding of composite materials requires reliable monitoring and detection of surface contaminants as part of a vigorous quality control process to assure robust and durable bonded structures. Surface treatment and effective monitoring prior to bonding are essential in order to obtain a surface which is free from contaminants that may lead to inferior bond quality. In this study, the focus is to advance the laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) technique by using pulse energies below 100 μJ (μLIBS) for the detection of low levels of silicone contaminants in carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. Various CFRP surface conditions were investigated by LIBS using ∼10 ps, 355 nm laser pulses with pulse energies below 30 μJ. Time-resolved analysis was conducted to optimize the gate delay and gate width for the detection of the C I emission line at 247.9 nm to monitor the epoxy resin matrix of CFRP composites and the Si I emission line at 288.2 nm for detection of silicone contaminants in CFRP. To study the surface sensitivity to silicone contamination, CFRP surfaces were coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), the active ingredient in many mold release agents. The presence of PDMS was studied by inspecting the Si I emission lines at 251.6 nm and 288.2 nm. The measured PDMS areal densities ranged from 0.15 to 2 μg/cm(sup 2). LIBS measurements were performed before and after laser surface ablation. The results demonstrate the successful detection of PDMS thin layers on CFRP using picosecond μLIBS.

Rodolfo Ledesma↗
NASA NTRS2018

Technology and Opportunities of Photon Sieve CubeSat with Deployable Optical Membrane

A photon sieve (PS) is a revolutionary optical instrument that provides high resolution imaging at a fraction of the weight of typical telescopes, with an areal density of 0.3 kg/m2 compared to 25 kg/m2 for the James Webb Space Telescope. The photon sieve is a variation of a Fresnel Zone Plate consisting of many small holes arranged in a series of concentric rings. The sieve works by diffracting light of a certain wavelength to a specified focal point for imaging, so that only a specific wavelength can be imaged. Moreover, the better image contrast and higher signal-to-noise ratios come from suppressing higher diffracted orders by apodizing the number of pinholes in the outer rings. Finally, a photon sieve requires less supports and can withstand more deformation without a reduction in the imaging qualities. Due to these properties, various groups have created PS CubeSats for Earth and Sun imaging at a low cost and weight specifically using deployable technology. A team at the Air Force Research Laboratory created a design and prototype of a mechanism that deploys a 20 cm diameter photon sieve. The United States Air Force Laboratory used a similar design to create a CubeSat-based deployable photon sieve. The team at NASA Langley Research Center has researched photon sieves for conducting an Earth-observing experiment using LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) with a higher signal-to-noise ratio benefit from the PS. This paper provides a state of the art overview on existing PS CubeSat technology with deployable structures and applications. Especially, the paper introduces PS for LIDAR applications and discusses the CubeSat-based PS challenge being worked at the NASA Langley Research Center.

Hyun Jung Kim↗
NASA NTRS2019

Landsat 9 Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Mission Success Approach

Landsat 9* (L9) is the successor mission to Landsat 8 (L8) previously known as Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM). Both missions are large unmanned remote sensing satellites operating in sunsynchronous polar orbits. As opposed to L8/LDCM, systems engineers for L9 incorporated Micrometeoroid/Orbital Debris (MMOD) protection for small object collisions as part of the L9’s mission success criteria. In other words, the NASA Process for Limiting Orbital Debris (NASA-STD-8719.14A) only calls for analyses of the protection of disposal-critical hardware, but L9 opted to also assess and provide small particle penetration protections for all observatory components including instruments that are not part of the spacecraft components needed for controlled reentry. Systems engineers at Goddard developed a design process to protect against MMOD during the life of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) observatories, and in particular the Landsat 9 Mission. Simply stated, this design process enhanced the effectiveness of existing Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) to provide the needed protection. The end goal of the design process was to establish a necessary blanket areal density for a given electronics box or instrument wall thickness and a separation between the outer MLI blanket and the structure underneath. The trade space was presented as a set of design curves for different combinations of blanket density, box wall thickness, and separation distance between MLI and structure. An advantage of this process was that it is largely independent of MMOD flux data on a surface-by surface basis. Ultimately, cost savings should result from incorporating small object penetration protection early in the design cycle, rather than adding spot shielding blankets later as needed to meet an overall penetration risk standard (the more traditional approach). The approach and implementation to the L9 Observatory design will be addressed in this paper. *L9 is a joint mission being formulated, implemented, and operated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Department of the Interior’s (DOI) United States Geological Survey (USGS).

Approach↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Wearable Protective Technologies

We are currently creating protective garments to be worn during the duration of SPE (solar particle events). Several garment prototypes have been created to protect the body, but nothing has been created for head protection. My focus during this internship was creating headgear designs. Some of the big requirements of an effective headgear design is that the hood design needs to cover the forehead and not have any gaps between the hood and neckline, and the areal density of radiation shielding needs to be at least 1.5 g/cm2. My designs were inspired by many different brands and designers including Nike’s outerwear selection, Moncler’s Fall 20 Genius collaborations with Simone Rocha, Craig Green, and Alyx, Marine Serre F/W 20, and A-Cold-Wall S/S 19. All of these had great examples of hood and vest designs. Many sketches were created from these and many other inspirations. Pattern development began by taking several measurements of the head and neck. I drafted the hood to cover the forehead and cover the neck. After the initial draft, the pattern was modified to accommodate a center panel to contour and shape the hood further. I also created a shoulder drape based on a kimono sleeve to add extra coverage over the neckline of the garment from a basic sloper’s neckline and shoulders. Radiation shielding was a special consideration in my design work. I did extensive research on different materials and ways to incorporate them into garments and found that I was not limited to polypropylene or polyethylene. Many common textiles are hydrogen rich, such as cotton, polyester, and silk, and could be incorporated into designs as radiation shielding. From this research, I am in the process of creating a prototype that uses these materials as shielding. I will be returning for the summer and hope to put more of the ideas I have into production.

Nicole Dugan↗
NASA NTRS2022

Lightweight Composite Reflectarray That Can Be Flattened, Folded, and Coiled for Compact Stowage

Herein is presented a design for a lightweight 5m 1m radio-frequency (RF) re ector that can be attened, folded, and coiled for compact stowage on board an ESPA-class spacecraft. The re ector is a re ectarray that operates at 3.2GHz. Compared to state- of-the-art technologies for RF re ectors, the presented design has advantages in terms of areal density, sti ness, deployed stability, and scalability. Thermal and structural analysis is presented to demonstrate deployed sti ness and thermoelastic stability of the proposed design. Thermal analysis is used to predict in- space deployed temperatures in an operational condition, and structural nite element analysis is used to predict deployed vibration modes and frequencies, and the thermoelastic deformation of the deployed re ector. Also presented are the fabrication, assembly, and testing of two one-third-scale-length full-scale-width 1:7m 1m test articles. These test articles are used to experimentally demonstrate RF functioning, stowage, deployment, and RF performance after deployment.

Pellegrino, Sergio↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Decreasing Proton Single Event Effects in CubeSats with Shielding

Shields-1, NORAD ID 43850,has been operating in polar low earth orbit since December 2018. The shielding has resulted in a lower total ionizing dose over time than typical aluminum thin-walled CubeSat structures. The reduced ionizing dosage caused by Shields-1 increases the reliability of commercial parts and reduces internal charging. Furthermore, the Shields-1 shielding reduces the ionizing particle fluence inside the spacecraft that contributes to the ionizing dose. NOVICE Sigma shielding software, using the (Aerospace Proton) AP8 –(Aerospace Electron) AE8 solar minimum trapped belt environment for a 1-year mission, estimates a 21.3 g/cm2 aluminum effective shielding for the Shields-1 electronics enclosure. This high areal density reduces not only the total number of energetic protons, but also reduces the number of ionizing particles over all modeled energies from the estimated shielded fluence for a 1-year mission. NOVICE Adjoint CAD modeling of the Shields-1 structure, with the detector located within the electronics enclosure, estimates that the total number of particles is reduced from 2.20x 10exp9 protons/cm2 to 1.52x 10exp8 protons/cm2, which represents 6.90% of the remaining particles(figure 1). By slowing down approximations of the integral proton fluence, a minimum proton threshold is estimated at 151 MeV. In comparison, a 0.204-cm aluminum thin-walled 3-unit (U) structure, with a 0.907 g/cm2 effective shielding, has 25.0% remaining particles and a minimum proton threshold of 36.2 MeV(figure 1). Proton energies that contribute to single event effects in radiation tolerant or higher semiconductor hardness are typically 100 MeV and higher. The Shields-1 electronics enclosure is estimated to attenuate energies: 100 MeV by 76.5%, 200 MeV by 61.7%, and 500 MeV by 63.0%(figure 2), when comparing the space environment proton differential fluence with the shielded differential fluence. The aluminum thin-walled structure is estimated to attenuate proton energies: 100 MeV by 13.7%, 200 MeV by 12.4%, and 500 MeV by 12.6%(figure 2), which are lower than for the Shields-1 electronics enclosure. The significant differences in attenuation between the Shields-1 electronics enclosure and aluminum thin-walled 3U structure show the additional utility of increasing shielding effectiveness for reducing the numbers of energetic protons that contribute to single event effects.

Larry Thomsen↗
NASA NTRS2023

The James Webb Space Telescope Mission: Optical Telescope Element Design, Development, and Performance

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a large, infrared space telescope that has recently started its science program which will enable breakthroughs in astrophysics and planetary science. Notably, JWST will provide the very first observations of the earliest luminous objects in the universe and start a new era of exoplanet atmospheric characterization. This transformative science is enabled by a 6.6 m telescope that is passively cooled with a 5 layer sunshield. The primary mirror is comprised of 18 controllable, low areal density hexagonal segments, that were aligned and phased relative to each other in orbit using innovative image-based wave front sensing and control algorithms. This revolutionary telescope took more than two decades to develop with a widely distributed team across engineering disciplines. We present an overview of the telescope requirements, architecture, development, superb on-orbit performance, and lessons learned. JWST successfully demonstrates a segmented aperture space telescope and establishes a path to building even larger space telescopes.

Infrared observatories↗
NASA NTRS2023

Mitigating Space Radiation Using Magnesium(-Lithium) and Boron Carbide Composites

The health effects of galactic cosmic radiation are a serious impediment to crewed exploration of the solar system. OLTARIS, an interface for the 3DHZETRN deterministic radiation transport code, was used to assess the response of aerospace materials to this constant radiation exposure. Traditional aerospace structural materials like aluminum can, after a certain mass, increase the health effects of such radiation. However, materials with lower atomic mass may mitigate this build-up in secondary radiation with increasing areal density. As such, lower atomic mass structural alloys of magnesium and magnesium–lithium are promising candidates. These alloys may reduce the mass of structures when substituted for aluminum alloys. Reinforcement with boron carbide could further reduce atomic mass while also improving the mechanical properties of such lightweight alloys. This study found that the lower atomic mass of these materials increased nuclear fragmentation upon cosmic radiation interactions, leading to a softening of the secondary (neutron) radiation spectra. This softened spectra reduced the effective dose equivalent, a measure of health effects, for magnesium(-lithium) alloys and their boron carbide-reinforced composites when compared to aluminum.

Galactic cosmic radiation↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

UV Curing Polymers For Radiation Shielding Applications

The scope of the current research is to develop polymers that will be durable under space conditions. In space, polymers can undergo thermal, mechanical, and oxidative degradation depending on which direction in space they are rotated (ram, wake, zenith, or nadir). Polymers can also be synthesized using techniques such as UV-radiation curing1,2 and cross-linking. In the current project, three organic molecules, acrylamide, styrene-butadiene, and triethylene glycol divinyl ether, were studied using computational software called OLTARIS3 (On-Line Tool for the Assessment of Radiation In Space) developed by NASA Langley to predict the degree of radiation shielding. All three molecules showed shielding before 60 g/cm2 areal density.

UV Curing↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Production and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Radiator Panels with Integral Branching Heat Pipes for High-Temperature Heat Rejection

Emerging concepts for fission surface power and nuclear electric propulsion necessitate lightweight, mechanically robust, and thermally efficient heat rejection radiators. State-of-the-art intermediate-temperature (~400 K) composite radiator assemblies have been developed based on titanium-water heat pipes bonded to metal, graphite, and carbon-fiber-based panels. NASA has identified a need for new radiator concepts that can operate at even higher temperatures (500 – 600 K), minimize thermal resistances and thermal stress failures at bond interfaces, and approach areal densities of 2 – 3 kg m -2 . To meet these needs, our team is developing additively manufactured (AM) radiator panels with integral branching wicking heat pipe networks. Water is selected as the working fluid for this temperature range. Based on simulations and thermal vacuum experiments, these branching embedded heat pipe networks can efficiently distribute heat over panels for finned surface efficiencies of η f >70% at T H = 500 K input heat. This paper first presents laser powder-bed fusion AM strategies to produce embedded porous structures for wicking heat pipes in Inconel 718 and titanium alloys (commercially pure and Ti-6Al-4V alloys). Post-build chemical and thermal treatments are described that yield hydrophilic wicking surfaces for operation with water. Transient rate-of-rise experiments with water and acetone are reported that yield estimates for AM wick porosity (ϵ), permeability (K), and effective pore radius (r pore ). Based on the wick characterization results, small prototype radiator panels (75 × 125 mm) with integrated heat pipe networks were manufactured. Heat rejection performance data are presented from cold thermal vacuum testing, with heat input temperatures up to ~510 K. Future efforts will focus on improving heat pipe performance, optimizing radiator mass, and evaluating larger panels to assess scalability.

thermal management↗
NASA NTRS2024

Production and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Radiator Panels With Integral Branching Heat Pipes for High-Temperature Heat Rejection

Emerging concepts for fission surface power and nuclear electric propulsion necessitate lightweight, mechanically robust, and thermally efficient heat rejection radiators. State-of-the-art intermediate-temperature (~400 K) composite radiator assemblies have been developed based on titanium-water heat pipes bonded to metal, graphite, and carbon-fiber-based panels. NASA has identified a need for new radiator concepts that can operate at even higher temperatures (500 – 600 K), minimize thermal resistances and thermal stress failures at bond interfaces, and approach areal densities of 2 – 3 kg m -2 . To meet these needs, our team is developing additively manufactured (AM) radiator panels with integral branching wicking heat pipe networks. Water is selected as the working fluid for this temperature range. Based on simulations and thermal vacuum experiments, these branching embedded heat pipe networks can efficiently distribute heat over panels for finned surface efficiencies of η f >70% at T H = 500 K input heat. This paper first presents laser powder-bed fusion AM strategies to produce embedded porous structures for wicking heat pipes in Inconel 718 and titanium alloys (commercially pure and Ti-6Al-4V alloys). Post-build chemical and thermal treatments are described that yield hydrophilic wicking surfaces for operation with water. Transient rate-of-rise experiments with water and acetone are reported that yield estimates for AM wick porosity (ϵ), permeability (K), and effective pore radius ( r pore ). Based on the wick characterization results, small prototype radiator panels (75 × 125 mm) with integrated heat pipe networks were manufactured. Heat rejection performance data are presented from cold thermal vacuum testing, with heat input temperatures up to ~510 K. Future efforts will focus on improving heat pipe performance, optimizing radiator mass, and evaluating larger panels to assess scalability.

nuclear electric propulsion↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Intermediate Temperature Ceramic Heat Pipe Modeling and Optimization

The intermediate temperature regime of heat pipes, 450-700 K, has not been well characterized due in part to the corrosive nature of many of the working fluids, as well as the poor performance in many conventional metal envelope systems. Spacecraft nuclear electric propulsion, as well as other emerging technologies, can benefit from heat pipes with optimal performance in this intermediate regime. In this work, we have explored halide working fluids coupled with aluminum nitride shells to operate at 500-600 K and interface with a nuclear electric propulsion system. The shells have been additively manufactured and tested to ensure compatibility with the halides. Specifically, AlBr 3 , AlCl 3 , FeCl 3 , and SbBr 3 were selected owing to their higher performance and comparatively safe handling characteristics compared to other intermediate temperature working fluids. The additive manufacturing process enables highly customizable designs that integrate the heat pipe and radiator fin together, optimized for each fluid. We have evaluated the performance limits of such a heat pipe design in order to establish the feasibility of AlBr 3 in particular, and present design that achieves an areal density of 5.2 kg/m 2 and mass per unit heat performance of 0.71 kg/kW. Analysis is ongoing for all working fluids.

thermal management↗
NASA NTRS2024

Intermediate Temperature Ceramic Heat Pipe Modeling and Optimization

Spacecraft nuclear electric propulsion, as well as other emerging technologies, can benefit from heat pipes with optimal performance in the intermediate temperature, 450–700 K, regime. In this work, a 1D model was developed to investigate the performance of halide working fluids coupled with 3D printed-ceramic shells to operate at 500–600 K and interface with a nuclear electric propulsion system. An initial conceptual design and performance limits of a 3D printed-AlN heat pipe radiator with AlBr 3 as the working fluid is presented. An areal density of 5.2 kg/m 2 and mass per unit heat performance of 1.00kg/kW is estimated.

thermal management↗