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DOE OSTI2020

Biomedical Integration of Metal–Organic Frameworks

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have recently been demonstrated to be excellent platforms for biomedical applications. On account of their porous nature and modular structure, MOFs have served as bioactive-compound carriers, cell-imaging materials, and therapeutic agents. MOF cavities allow the encapsulation of a variety of guest molecules, facilitating controllable drug release and optical imaging. The metal components of MOFs make them suitable for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). Further, MOF-embedded therapeutic agents have demonstrated promise in photodynamic and photothermal therapies. In this review, we describe several advanced examples that utilize MOFs in these cutting-edge applications. Investigation of the relationship between their structure and designated application will enable future, informed exploration of MOFs for biomedical applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2021

Reactivity of CO 2 with Utica, Marcellus, Barnett, and Eagle Ford Shales and Impact on Permeability

We report that in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while recovering hydrocarbons from unconventional shale formations, processes that make use of carbon dioxide to enhance oil recovery while storing carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) should be considered. Here, we examine samples from three shale basins across the United States (Utica and Marcellus Shales in the Appalachian Basin, Barnett Shale in the Bend Arch-Ft. Worth Basin, and Eagle Ford in the Western Gulf Basin) to address the following questions: (1) do changes from reaction with CO 2 and fluids at the micrometer and nanometer scale alter flow pathways and, in turn, impact hydrocarbon production, CO 2 storage, and seal integrity and (2) can CO 2 or fluid reactivity be predicted based on physical or chemical properties of shale formations? Experiments were conducted at 40 °C and 10.3 MPa to characterize the interaction between CO 2 and shale using X-ray diffraction (XRD), carbon and sulfur analysis, in situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), feature relocation scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), mercury (Hg) intrusion porosimetry, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and pore size analysis coupled with density functional theory (DFT) methods. Changes in mechanical, physical, and flow properties of shale cores due to CO 2 exposure were addressed using a New England Research Autolab 1500 and Xenon X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning. Results showed that CO 2 did not promote significant reactivity with the shale if water was not present; only shales with swelling clays or residual interstitial pore water reacted with dry CO 2 to promote reactivity in shale. When water was added as a reactant, CO 2 formed carbonic acid and reacted with the shale to dissolve carbonate pockets, etched and pitted the shale matrix surfaces, and increased the microporosity and decreased nanoporosity. Porosity and permeability increased appreciably in core shale samples after exposure to CO 2 saturated fluid due to dissolution of carbonate. Shale mechanical properties were not altered. Trends were not observed that could tie CO 2 or fluid reactivity to physical or chemical properties of the shale formations at the basin scale from the samples we examined. However, if the shale contained significant amounts of carbonate and water was available to react with the CO 2 , pore sizes were altered in the matrix and permeability and porosity increased.

04 OIL SHALES AND TAR SANDS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Impact of Concurrent Solubilization and Fines Migration on Fracture Aperture Growth in Shales during Acidized Brine Injection

Acidic hydraulic fracturing fluid chemically and physically alters shale rock fabric during injection and shut-in, creating a “reaction-altered zone” along the fracture faces. To better characterize the variable thickness and composition of this reaction-altered zone under advective flow, we take a coupled experimental and modeling approach. A fluidic cell, with six fiducial markers, is first fabricated to keep the rock sample in place during the core floods and to allow image alignment of acquired images. Then, we conduct a series of reactive core floods in a clay-rich siliceous Wolfcamp shale sample with 10 wt % carbonate, using a synthetic fracturing fluid under no confining stress and at room temperature. High-resolution computed tomography (CT) scans are periodically conducted to observe the spatial alteration of the fracture network. We then perform scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) on the two orthogonal surfaces (fracture surface and freshly cut profile face) to generate high-resolution elemental maps that show the change in mineralogy, both with distance along a given flow path along a fracture surface and with depth from the fracture surface into the shale matrix. These results are contrasted against a two-dimensional (2D) advection-diffusion reaction model developed previously for batch reactions between shale and synthetic fracturing fluids. The model simulates the geochemical interaction occurring at the fracture/matrix interface and penetrating into the shale matrix during the reactive core flood. Both model and experimental results show that the acidic brine is neutralized during the core flood, corresponding to an increase in fracture aperture as a function of fluid volume injected with the greatest change near the inlet. SEM-EDS scans reveal significant dissolution of carbonates on the fracture surface without pyrite oxidation. The reactive transport model indicates that carbonate depletion into the shale interior should be observable, yet SEM-EDS shows no discernible loss of carbonate in the orthogonal profile face. The combination of these observations suggests an additional fracture evolution mechanism in the reactive system, i.e., fines migration. We show that fines migration enhances the access of fracturing fluid to the matrix resulting in a more pronounced fracture widening. Finally, we conclude that coupled mineral dissolution and fines migration govern fracture aperture growth during acidized brine injection. In this work, we effectively show the underlying risk of relying solely on models that do not include an important (transport) process that can alter the system significantly and propose a combined chemomechanical mechanism for fracture evolution appropriate for this shale mineralogy.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Integrated Experimental and Modeling Study of Geochemical Reactions of Simple Fracturing Fluids with Caney Shale

Interactions between rock minerals and hydraulic fluids directly impact the geochemical and geomechanical properties of shale formations. However, the mechanisms of geochemical reactions in shale unconventional reservoirs remain poorly understood. Here, to investigate the geochemical reactions between shale and hydraulic fracturing fluids, a series of batch reactor experiments were undertaken. Three rock samples with different mineralogical compositions and three fluid samples of different compositions (deionized water, deionized water + 2% potassium chloride (KCl), and deionized water + 0.5% choline chloride (C 5 H 14 ClNO) were used. Experiments were undertaken at reservoir temperature and atmospheric pressure. Elemental compositions of effluents after 1, 3, 7, 14, 28 days were analyzed using Inductively Couple Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Medical Computed Tomography (CT) scan and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) were conducted on the entire core run to help upscale results obtained from rock-fluid interaction experiments. Geochemical modeling using a reactive simulator, TOUGHREACT, was undertaken to corroborate experimental results. Results show that lower pH triggered high dissolution rates in the rock samples, especially the carbonate components. As pH increased, the rate of dissolution declined significantly, though for most cases dissolution still continued. Observed dissolved silica concentrations were much higher than the quartz solubility, suggesting that much of the silica originates from more soluble silica polymorphs and possibly desorption from clay mineral exchange sites. Concentration of most elemental species in solution increased but aluminium and magnesium concentrations declined rapidly following initial entry into solution. Geochemical modeling corroborated the conclusions regarding mineral dissolution and precipitation observed from experiments, notably; the dissolution of calcite and oxidation of pyrite in reacted shale samples, the likely presence of silica polymorphs such as opal, chalcedony or amorphous silica in these samples, and the reduction of Al and Mg concentrations in solution by precipitation of secondary aluminosilicate phases. The de-flocculation of clay minerals during reaction implies fines migration after hydraulic fracturing. This is detrimental to reservoir productivity as clay fines are displaces and lodged within the micro and nano-fractures created during fracturing. The immediate consumption of aluminium and magnesium also has implications on blockage of hydrocarbon pathways due to precipitation of new minerals in these locations.

04 OIL SHALES AND TAR SANDS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Coupled Transport, Reactivity, and Mechanics in Fractured Shale Caprocks

Abstract Shales are low‐permeability caprocks that confine fluid, such as CO 2 , nuclear waste, and hydrogen, in storage formations. Stress‐induced fractures in shale caprocks provide pathways for fluid to leak and potentially contaminate fresh water aquifers. Fractured shales are also increasingly considered as resources for CO 2 sequestration, enhanced geothermal, and unconventional energy recovery. Injecting reactive fluids into shales introduces chemical disequilibrium, causing an onset of a series of dissolution, precipitation, and fines mobilization mechanisms. The reactions have rapid kinetics and significant impact on porosity and permeability; consequently, flow and storage properties of caprocks. While previous research has explored the separate effects of these reactions, this study aims to uncover their simultaneous occurrence and collective influence. This study unveils these highly coupled transport and reactivity mechanisms by tracking and visualizing the reaction‐induced alterations in the matrix, microcracks, and fractures of shales over time. We conducted brine injection experiments sequentially at pH 4 and 2 in a naturally fractured Wolfcamp shale sample while simultaneously imaging the dynamic processes using X‐ray computed tomography (CT). CT images are validated by finer resolution images obtained using micro‐CT and scanning electron microscopy. We also tracked the sample permeability and fluid chemistry using brine permeability and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, respectively. Findings show that fluid primarily flowed through fractures, dissolving reactive minerals and mobilizing fines on fracture surfaces. Dissolution of fracture asperities under confining stress resulted in the closing of fractures. Clogging in narrow fracture pathways, caused by fines accumulation, diverted fluid flow into matrix pores.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Bridging Nano- and Microscale X-Ray Tomography for Battery Research by Leveraging Artificial Intelligence

X-ray computed tomography (CT) is a non-destructive imaging technique in which contrast originates from the materials' absorption coefficient. The recent development of laboratory nanoscale CT (nano-CT) systems has pushed the spatial resolution for battery material imaging to voxel sizes of 50 nm, a limit previously achievable only with synchrotron facilities. Given the non-destructive nature of CT, in situ and operando studies have emerged as powerful methods to quantify morphological parameters, such as tortuosity factor, porosity, surface area and volume expansion, during battery operation or cycling. Combined with artificial intelligence and machine learning analysis techniques, nano-CT has enabled the development of predictive models to analyse the impact of the electrode microstructure on cell performances or the influence of material heterogeneities on electrochemical responses. In this Review, we discuss the role of X-ray CT and nano-CT experimentation in the battery field, discuss the incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning analyses and provide a perspective on how the combination of multiscale CT imaging techniques can expand the development of predictive multiscale battery behavioural models.

diagnostics↗

DOE OSTI2022

Laser-based ultrasound interrogation of surface and sub-surface features in advanced manufacturing materials

Abstract Structures formed by advanced manufacturing methods increasingly require nondestructive characterization to enable efficient fabrication and to ensure performance targets are met. This is especially important for aerospace, military, and high precision applications. Surface acoustic waves (SAW) generated by laser-based ultrasound can detect surface and sub-surface defects relevant for a broad range of advanced manufacturing processes, including laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). In particular, an all-optical SAW generation and detection configuration can effectively interrogate laser melt lines. Here we report on scattered acoustic energy from melt lines, voids, and surface features. Sub-surface voids are also characterized using X-ray Computed Tomography (CT). High resolution CT results are presented and compared with SAW measurements. Finite difference simulations inform experimental measurements and analysis.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Development of low temperature fuel cell holders for Operando x-ray micro and nano computed tomography to visualize water distribution

Abstract Synchrotron x-ray imaging techniques, like x-ray computed tomography (CT) and radiography have proven instrumental in expanding the communities knowledge of complex transport and reaction kinetics in electrochemical devices such as fuel cells and electrolyzers. This work presents the development of novel x-ray CT imaging techniques for operando visualization of water within low temperature fuel cells at spatial resolutions spanning the micro and nano scales. The design of operando sample holders, for both micro x-ray CT and nano CT experiments is described in depth, and prototypes of these sample holders were evaluated across a set of requirements, the most important of which are x-ray transmissibility, electrical conductivity and mechanical stability. Water segmentation from micro x-ray CT data was enabled by an image subtraction method, where the image without water is subtracted from the one with water. Through iterative experimentations, the operando nano CT cell was developed to optimize mechanical compression, electric conductivity and gas flow. While three-dimensional fuel cell reconstructions were shown possible, there remain challenges to overcome at typical lower energies (8 keV) due to beam damage, whereas it is not as significant for higher energies (>17.5 keV).

Kulkarni, Devashish↗

DOE OSTI2021

Characterization of damage processes in Montney siltstone under triaxial compression using acoustic emission and diagnostic imaging

SUMMARY Crack nucleation and rock failure processes in a fine-grained siltstone (Montney Formation) under triaxial compression are investigated using combined diagnostic techniques, including ultrasonic-wave measurement, acoustic-emission (AE) monitoring, computed tomography (CT) scanning, and thin-section imaging. The sample displays a weak-to-moderate inherent seismic anisotropy and noticeable stress-induced anisotropy prior to failure. No AE event was detected until the applied axial stress reached 95 per cent of the peak value. The signal-to-noise ratio is relatively low, however, and detectable AE events are more diffuse than those observed in highly brittle rocks. The AE locations correlate with a shear fracture zone imaged by CT scanning. AE moment-tensor analysis reveals that events with larger relative magnitudes are characterized by high volumetric (tensile or compressive) components, and the initiation of the failure zone is dominated by combined shear-tensile (ST) failure. Stress inversion of the AE events with high tensile components is in good agreement with the known applied stress. Microscopic imaging of thin sections from the failed sample shows that the failure zone is an en echelon structure consisting of a major fracture with branching micro and minor cracks. This failure mechanism is consistent with a ST source mechanism and is interpreted to be associated with the fine granular structure and mineral composition of Montney siltstone.

Jia, Suzie Q. (ORCID:0000000326496190)↗

DOE OSTI2026

Regularizing INR with Diffusion Prior for Self-Supervised 3D Reconstruction OF Neutron Computed Tomography Data

Recently, generative diffusion priors have made huge strides as inverse problem solvers, including the ability to be adapted for inference on out-of-distribution data. Concurrently, implicit neural representations (INRs) have emerged as fast and lightweight inverse imaging solvers that are amenable to hybrid approaches that combine learned priors with traditional inverse problem formulations. In this paper, we present a diffusive computed tomography (CT) inversion framework for regularizing INRs called Diffusive INR (DINR), designed to enable high-quality reconstruction from sparse-view neutron CT. Pretrained purely on synthetic data, DINR is evaluated on simulated and experimentally obtained observations of concrete microstructures, where traditional reconstruction methods suffer substantial degradation when the number of views is reduced. Our approach delivers superior performance, reduces reconstruction artifacts, and achieves gains in PSNR and SSIM, enabling accurate micro-structural characterization even under extreme data limitations compared to state-of-the-art sparse-view reconstruction techniques.

Hossain, Maliha [ORNL]↗

DOE OSTI2020

Influence of Data Acquisition Algorithms on X-ray Phase Contrast Imaging Computed Tomography

X-ray phase contrast imaging (XPCI) is a non-destructive evaluation technique that enables high-contrast detection of low-attenuation materials that are largely transparent in traditional radiography. Extending a grating based Talbot-Lau XPCI system to three- dimensional imaging with computed tomography (CT) imposes two motion requirements: the analyzer grating must translate transverse to the optical axis to capture image sets for XPCI reconstruction, and the sample must rotate to capture angular data for CT reconstruction. The acquisition algorithm choice determines the order of movement and positioning of the two stages. The choice of image acquisition algorithm for XPCI CT is instrumental to collecting high fidelity data for reconstruction. We investigate how data acquisition influences XPCI CT by comparing two simple data acquisition algorithms and determine that capturing a full phase-stepping image set for a CT projection before rotating the sample results in higher quality data.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2021

A Systems Approach to Estimating the Uncertainty Limits of X-Ray Radiographic Metrology

Micro- and nanomanufacturing capabilities have rapidly expanded over the past decade to include complex three-dimensional (3D) structure fabrication; however, the metrology required to accurately assess these processes via part inspection and characterization has struggled to keep pace. X-ray computed tomography (CT) is considered an ideal candidate for providing the critically needed metrology on the smallest scales, especially internal features, or inaccessible regions. X-ray CT supporting micro- and nanomanufacturing often push against the poorly understood resolution and variation limits inherent to the machines, which can distort or hide fine structures. In this study, we have developed and experimentally verify a comprehensive analytical uncertainty propagation signal variation flow graph (SVFG) model for X-ray radiography in this work to better understand resolution and image variability limits on the small scale. The SVFG approach captures, quantifies, and predicts variations occurring in the system that limit metrology capabilities, particularly in the micro/nanodomain. This work is the first step to achieving full uncertainty modeling of CT reconstructions and provides insight into improving X-ray attenuation imaging systems. The SVFG methodology framework is applied to generate a complete basis set of functions describing the major sources of variation in radiographs. Five models are identified, covering variation in energy, intensity, length, blur, and position. Radiographic system experiments are defined to measure the parameters required by the SVFGs. Best practices are identified for these measurements. The SVFG models are confirmed via direct measurement of variation to predict variation within 30% on average.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Impacts of Superalloys on the Surface Quality of Additively Manufactured Channels

Abstract Gas turbines feature many components that require superalloys capable of handling extreme thermal environments. Increasing the selection of materials available for these components is important to their use in these extremely high-temperature environments. This study investigated two recently developed materials intended to be used for additive manufacturing (AM), with one superalloy based on cobalt and the other on nickel. Sets of four test coupons were built using the materials, in addition to the commonly used Inconel-718, on multiple laser powder bed fusion machines. Several build conditions were varied between coupon sets, including coupon orientation, contour settings, and upskin and downskin treatment. Each set of test coupons featured four unique cooling designs to explore how different cooling technologies would be impacted by the variations in build conditions. After being built, coupons were computed tomography (CT) scanned to determine accuracy to design intent and quantify the surface roughness. The CT scans indicated that horizontally built test coupons had a significantly higher deviation from design intent and higher surface roughness than those built vertically. Results also indicated that the cobalt-based alloy consistently had a smoother surface quality with lower surface roughness compared to the nickel-based alloy. After geometric characterization, the cooling performance of the test coupons was measured experimentally. Pressure losses were found to correlate with increases in surface roughness; however, in some cases, the convective heat transfer did not increase proportionally to the pressure loss as a result of surface features significantly blocking the flow without proportionally increasing convective heat transfer.

Engineering↗

DOE OSTI2021

Void-free Copper Electrodeposition in High Aspect Ratio, Full Wafer Thickness Through-Silicon Vias with Endpoint Detection

High density interconnects are required for increased input/output for microelectronics applications, incentivizing the development of Cu electrochemical deposition (ECD) processes for high aspect ratio through-silicon vias (TSVs). This work outlines Cu ECD processes for 62.5 μ m diameter TSVs, etched into a 625 μ m thick silicon substrate, a 10:1 aspect ratio. Cu ECD in high aspect ratio features relies on a delicate balance of electrolyte composition, solution replenishment, and applied voltage. Implementing a CuSO 4 -H 2 SO 4 electrolyte, which contains suppressor and a low chloride concentration, allows for a tunable relationship between applied voltage and localized deposition in the vias. A stepped potential waveform was applied to move the Cu growth front from the bottom of the via to the top. Sample characterization was performed through mechanical cross-sections and X-ray computed tomography (CT) scans. The CT scans revealed small seam voids in the Cu electrodeposit, and process parameters were tuned accordingly to produce void-free Cu features. During the voltage-controlled experiments, measured current data showed a characteristic current minimum, which was identified as an endpoint detection method for Cu deposition in these vias. We believe this is the first report of this novel endpoint detection method for TSV filling.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2022

MRI-Based Radiotherapy Planning to Reduce Rectal Dose in Excess of Tolerance

Background and Purpose. Chronic rectal toxicity significantly decreases the quality of life for men who receive radiotherapy for prostate cancer. The most significant predictor of rectal toxicity is rectal dose-volume exceeding tolerance. To minimize the volume of rectum in the high dose field, it is essential to accurately define the prostate-rectum interface. This can be challenging to do by computed tomography (CT) imaging alone. The current study was undertaken to formally demonstrate in a clinical trial setting that image-guided intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IG-IMRT) planning using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can reduce the volume of rectum exceeding 70 Gy, a validated metric that predicts the risk of late rectal toxicity. Materials and Methods. This prospective single-arm study enrolled 15 men treated with IG-IMRT for localized prostate cancer. All participants received a dedicated 3 Tesla MRI examination of the prostate in addition to a pelvic CT examination for treatment planning. Two volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) plans with a prescription dose of 79.2 Gy were designed using identical constraints based on CT- and MRI-defined consensus volumes. The volume of rectum exposed to 70 Gy or more was compared using the Wilcoxon paired signed rank test. Results. For CT-based treatment plans, the median volume of rectum receiving 70 Gy or more was 9.3 cubic centimeters (cc) (IQR 7.0 to 10.2) compared with 4.9 cc (IQR 4.1 to 7.8) for MRI-based plans. This resulted in a median volume reduction of 2.1 cc (IQR 0.5 to 5.3, P < .001). Conclusions. Using MRI to plan prostate IG-IMRT to a dose of 79.2 Gy reduces the volume of rectum receiving radiation dose in excess of tolerance (70 Gy or more) and should be considered in men who are at high risk for late rectal toxicity and are not good candidates for other rectal sparing techniques such as hydrogel spacer. This trial is registered with NCT02470910.

Schmidt, Daniel R.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Holotomography Phase-Retrieval

Holotomography is a non-destructive x-ray imaging technique which allows to visualize the interior morphology of object without damaging them. It is similar to x-ray computed tomography (CT), but unlike conventional CT, which is based on the attenuation of x-rays passing through the object, holotomography exploits the phase shift caused by the sample. This phase-contrast imaging allows to increase image contrast by recovering refractive index of materials and is proven to be more sensitive to density variations than conventional absorption-based X-ray imaging when applied to low-Z materials. In holotomography, the phase is retrieved by measuring the variations in intensity of the object at different sample to detector distances. Several algorithms exist to perform this task such as, contrast transfer function (CTF), transport of intensity equation (TIE), and a mixed approach which combine both TIE and CTF.

Forien, Jean-Baptiste↗

DOE OSTI2021

LoTToR: An Algorithm for Missing-Wedge Correction of the Low-Tilt Tomographic 3D Reconstruction of a Single-Molecule Structure (LoTToR) v1.0

The low-tilt tomographic reconstruction (LoTToR) method is a post-processing method to correct the missing-wedge artifact, which contains a model-free iteration process under a set of constraints in real and reciprocal spaces. A proof of concept is conducted by using the LoTToR on a phantom, i.e., a simulated 3D reconstruction from a low-tilt series of images, including that within a tilt range of ±15°. The method is validated by using both negative-staining (NS) and cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) experimental data. A significantly reduced missing-wedge artifact verifies the capability of LoTToR, suggesting a new tool to support the future study of macromolecular dynamics, fluctuation and chemical activity from the viewpoint of single-molecule 3D structure determination. Moreover, the software can be used for hospital computer tomography (CT) to reduce the radiation damage to patients without reducing the CT image quality.

Ren, Gang↗

DOE OSTI2022

Tomo2Mesh: Fast Reconstruction and Visualization of Tomography Data in Mesh Format

Tomo2Mesh is an open-source project targeted towards real-time reconstruction, segmentation, and visualization of computed tomography (CT) data in mesh format. The CT reconstruction scheme is based on filtered back-projection of voxel subsets. The segmentation scheme uses a 3D convolutional neural network. To allow for fast, real-time reconstruction, voxel subsets are first identified by coarse reconstruction. The detail in specific regions of interest is improved through full reconstruction of voxel subsets in that region. Data structures are implemented to store and process voxel subsets. Finally, voxel data is labeled using connected components to detect disconnected regions such as voids whose morphological attributes (e.g., Feret diameter, principal axis orientation, local number density, size, etc.) can be measured also in real-time. Finally, a fast marching cubes implementation processes labeled voxel data into a triangular face mesh (vertices and faces) in .ply format for visualization in Paraview or other mesh visualization tools. The code provides a simple programming interface for detecting, classifying, and visualizing regions of interest based on morphology. For example, detected voids can be classified as round pores or extended cracks. Highly porous neighborhoods can be identified based on local number density. The mesh texture (or color) is assigned based these morphological attributes to allow smart visualization scenarios in real-time (e.g., show only long cracks). At the time of first release (July 2022), extraction of face mesh for visualization for raw CT data from a 2 megapixel camera would take between 1-5 minutes for most scenarios.

TEKAWADE, ANIKET↗