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The technology development of the space station is examined as it relates to space station growth and equipment requirements for future missions. Future mission topics are refined and used to establish a systems data base. Technology for human factors engineering, space maintenance, satellite design, and laser communications and tracking is discussed.
Man's ability to live and perform useful work in space was demonstrated throughout the history of manned space flight. Current planning envisions a multi-functional space station. Man's unique abilities to respond to the unforeseen and to operate at a level of complexity exceeding any reasonable amount of previous planning distinguish him from present day machines. His limitations, however, include his inherent inability to survive without protection, his limited strength, and his propensity to make mistakes when performing repetitive and monotonous tasks. By contrast, an automated system does routine and delicate tasks, exerts force smoothly and precisely, stores, and recalls large amounts of data, and performs deductive reasoning while maintaining a relative insensitivity to the environment. The establishment of a permanent presence of man in space demands that man and machines be appropriately combined in spaceborne systems. To achieve this optimal combination, research is needed in such diverse fields as artificial intelligence, robotics, behavioral psychology, economics, and human factors engineering.
The central problem in crewstation design, that of optimizing the exchange of information between the human and machine components of a system is addressed. The CAR, CUBITS, GROUP, ABBREV, VRAS, and HOS programs, products of the Navy's Human Factors Engineering Technology Development program are all discussed. They are representative to the type of technology which was previously indicated as necessary to move crewstation design and validation to a higher lever of maturity, one which takes cognizance of the multivariate nature of the problems faced by the crewstation designer and has a far less dependence of the whims of personal or subjective opinion.
Space station human productivity is considered from the prospective of human factors engineering in space station architecture.
Lessons learned from the Alaskan North Slope construction camps and the Western Regional Undersea Laboratory are analyzed with respect to possible improvements for space station interior space utilization and living areas. The human factors engineering aspects have a direct bearing on the condition of crew and occupants.
Human factors engineering concepts were considered for the ECLSS module concept space station. ECLS modules were conceptually examined to determine their advantages and disadvantages.
Issues of crew productivity during design work on space station are discussed. The crew productivity is defined almost exclusively in terms of human factors engineering and habitability design concerns. While such spatial environmental conditions are necessary to support crew performance and productivity, they are not sufficient to ensure high levels of crew performance and productivity on the post-Initial Operational Configurations (IOC) space station. The role of the organizational environment as a complement to the spatial environment for influencing crew performance in such isolated and confined work settings is examined. Three possible models of operation for post-IOC space station's organizational environment are identified and it is explained how they and space station's spatial environment will combine and interact to occasion patterns of crew behavior is suggested. A three phase program of research design: (1) identify patterns of crew behavior likely to be occasioned on post-IOC space station for each of the three models of operation; and (2) to determine proactive/preventative management strategies which could be adopted to maximize the emergence of preferred outcomes in crew behavior under each of the several spatial and organizational environment combinations.
In the procedures designed to minimize human errors that lead to aircraft incidents, the improved human factor engineering and automation approaches must be supplemented by new training methods. Changes are suggested in the preprogrammed training principles which are currently based almost exclusively on the procedures-oriented environment, with insufficient training for cognitive processing and awareness. Use of the Line-Oriented Flight Training procedure, in which a training simulator is supplemented by a highly structured script or scenario to simulate the total line operational environment for the purpose of simultaneously training the entire flight crew, offers one way of providing pilots and other crewmembers with the experience of dealing with unexpected or stressful events. Of primary importance is maximal coordination between the aircraft captain and other crewmembers during the flight, which puts emphasis on the importance of teamwork and personal relations among all other crewmembers. The current FARs governing training and proficiency will have to be modified to accommodate new training appoaches.
Surrogate measures are proposed as an alternative to direct assessment of operational performance for purposes of screening agents who may have to work under unusual stresses or in exotic environments. Such measures are particularly proposed when the surrogate can be empirically validated against the operational criterion. The focus is on cognitive (or throughput) performances in humans as opposed to sensory (input) or motor (output) measures, but the methods should be applicable for development of batteries which will tap input/output functions. A menu of performance tasks is under development for implementation on a battery-operated portable microcomputer, with 21 tests currently available. The tasks are reliable and become stable in minimum amounts of time; appear sensitive to some agents; comprise constructs related to actual job tasks; and are easily administered in most environments. Implications for human factors engineering studies in environmental stress are discussed.
Information is presented in viewgraph form on a number of related topics. Information is given on orbit transfer vehicles, spacecraft instruments, spaceborne experiments, university/industry programs, spacecraft propulsion, life support systems, cryogenics, spacecraft power supplies, human factors engineering, spacecraft construction materials, aeroassist, aerobraking and aerothermodynamics.
Information in viewgraph form is given on aerothermodynamics, space energy conversion, spacecraft propulsion, spacecraft construction materials, spacecraft communications, spacecraft control, human factors engineering, and systems analysis.
PLAID is a computer-aided design tool for human factors engineering which has been used successfully in the Space Shuttle program and for design analysis of Space Station Freedom. PLAID capability includes analysis of visual fields of view, of the ability to reach a specified point, and of spatial conflicts. It enables the creation of animations which depict whole sequences of motions of astronauts and equipment. The PLAID graphics capability is described and its application to man-systems integration is briefly examined. The use of PLAID for maintainability is addressed, and future plans for PLAID are discussed.
The utilization of advanced simulation technology in the development of the non-real-time MANPRINT design tools in the Army/NASA Aircrew-Aircraft Integration (A3I) program is described. A description is then given of the Crew Station Research and Development Facilities, the primary tool for the application of MANPRINT principles. The purpose of the A3I program is to develop a rational, predictive methodology for helicopter cockpit system design that integrates human factors engineering with other principles at an early stage in the development process, avoiding the high cost of previous system design methods. Enabling technologies such as the MIDAS work station are examined, and the potential of low-cost parallel-processing systems is indicated.
The last two decades have witnessed a rapid growth in the introduction of automatic devices into aircraft cockpits, and eleswhere in human-machine systems. This was motivated in part by the assumption that when human functioning is replaced by machine functioning, human error is eliminated. Experience to date shows that this is far from true, and that automation does not replace humans, but changes their role in the system, as well as the types and severity of the errors they make. This altered role may lead to fewer, but more critical errors. Intervention strategies to prevent these errors, or ameliorate their consequences include basic human factors engineering of the interface, enhanced warning and alerting systems, and more intelligent interfaces that understand the strategic intent of the crew and can detect and trap inconsistent or erroneous input before it affects the system.
Both NASA and DoD have had a long standing interest in teamwork, distributed decision making, and automation. While research on these topics has been pursued independently, it is becoming increasingly clear that the integration of social, cognitive, and human factors engineering principles will be necessary to meet the challenges of highly sophisticated scientific and military programs of the future. Images of human/intelligent-machine electronic collaboration were drawn from NASA and Air Force reports as well as from other sources. Here, areas of common concern are highlighted. A description of the author's research program testing a 'psychological distancing' model of electronic media effects and human/expert system collaboration is given.
Significant research and technology activities at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) during Fiscal Year 1990 are reviewed. Research in human factors engineering, the Space Shuttle, the Space Station Freedom, space exploration and related topics are covered.
This bibliography lists 238 reports, articles, and other documents introduced into the NASA Scientific and Technical Information System in August 1991. Subject coverage includes: aerospace medicine and psychology, life support systems and controlled environments, safety equipment, exobiology and extraterrestrial life, biotechnology, human factors engineering, and flight crew behavior and performance.
Bibliographies and abstracts are listed for 1221 reports, articles, and other documents introduced into the NASA scientific and technical information system between January 1, 1991 and June 30, 1991. Topics covered include large space structures and systems, space stations, extravehicular activity, thermal environments and control, tethering, spacecraft power supplies, structural concepts and control systems, electronics, advanced materials, propulsion, policies and international cooperation, vibration and dynamic controls, robotics and remote operations, data and communication systems, electric power generation, space commercialization, orbital transfer, and human factors engineering.