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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 145 records · Page 8
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

A Step in Understanding the Hubble Tension

As cosmological data have improved, tensions have arisen. One such tension is the difference between the locally measured Hubble constant H 0 and the value inferred from the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Interacting radiation has been suggested as a solution, but studies show that conventional models are precluded by high-ℓ CMB polarization data. It seems at least plausible that a solution may be provided by related models that distinguish between high- and low-ℓ multipoles. When interactions of strongly-coupled radiation are mediated by a force-carrier that becomes non-relativistic, the dark radiation undergoes a "step" in which its relative energy density increases as the mediator deposits its entropy into the lighter species. If this transition occurs while CMB-observable modes are inside the horizon, high- and low-ℓ peaks are impacted differently, corresponding to modes that enter the horizon before or after the step. Here, these dynamics are naturally packaged into the simplest supersymmetric theory, the Wess-Zumino model, with the mass of the scalar mediator near the eV-scale. We investigate the cosmological signatures of such "Wess-Zumino Dark Radiation" (WZDR) and find that it provides an improved fit to the CMB alone, favoring larger values of H 0 . If supernovae measurements from the SH0ES collaboration are also included in the analysis, the inferred value of H 0 is yet larger, but the preference for dark radiation and the location of the transition is left nearly unchanged. Utilizing a standardized set of measures, we compare to other models and find that WZDR is among the most successful at addressing the H 0 tension and the best of those with a Lagrangian formulation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mirror dark sector solution of the Hubble tension with time-varying fine-structure constant

Here we explore a model introduced by Cyr-Racine et al. that resolves the Hubble tension by invoking a “mirror world” dark sector with energy density a fixed fraction of the “ordinary” sector of Λ+ cold dark matter. Although it reconciles cosmic microwave background and large-scale structure observations with local measurements of the Hubble constant, H 0 , the model requires a value of the primordial helium mass fraction, Y p = 0.170 ± 0.025, that is discrepant with observations and with the predictions of big bang nucleosynthesis. We consider a variant of the model with standard helium mass fraction but with the value of the electromagnetic fine-structure constant, α, slightly different during photon decoupling from its present value. If α at that epoch is lower than its current value by Δα ≃ -2 x 10 -5 , then we can achieve the same Hubble tension resolution as in the work by Cyr-Racine et al. but with consistent helium abundance. As an example of such time evolution of α, we consider a toy model of an ultralight scalar field, with mass m < 4 x 10 -29 eV, coupled to electromagnetism, which evolves after photon decoupling at redshift z ≃ 10 3 , and that with appropriate coupling appears to be consistent with late-time constraints on α variation and the weak equivalence principle.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Submodule-Level Decentralized Control for Cascaded Quadruple Active Bridge-Based Medium-Voltage Converters

High-power, low-voltage DC (LVDC) loads, such as AI data centers, electric vehicle fast-charging hubs, and hydrogen electrolyzers, are accelerating the deployment of solid-state transformers (SSTs) that directly interface medium-voltage AC (MVAC) to LVDC, streamlining power delivery. This paper proposes a submodule-level decentralized control strategy for an SST comprising a cascaded H-bridge (CHB) active rectifier on the MVAC side and per-module quadruple-active-bridge (QAB) converters on the LVDC side with local controllers. The proposed strategy eliminates the need for high-fidelity, real-time cross-isolation communication by synchronizing all active bridges to a common heartbeat signal and enabling the primary- and secondary-side controllers to generate independent local control signals (phase shifts). The resultant phase shifts naturally govern average and double-line frequency power transfer between active bridges, enabling each side to meet its control objectives using only local measurements. Detailed controller design considerations are presented based on a stability analysis. Comprehensive electromagnetic-transient simulations demonstrate tight DC-link voltage regulation, high-quality grid currents, and robust operation under load transients and grid disturbances, without real-time communication among the submodule controllers. These results indicate that the proposed scheme can significantly enhance the reliability, scalability, and flexibility of cascaded bridge-based medium-voltage converters.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Detection of diffusion limited oxidation in thermally aged ethylene propylene rubber cable insulation material

The lifetime prediction of electrical cable insulation in nuclear power plants (NPPs) is primarily based on accelerated aging. Polymeric insulation exposed to accelerated aging at high temperatures may demonstrate diffusion limited oxidation (DLO) where oxygen within the material is consumed faster than can be supplied by diffusion from the surrounding air. This situation leads to equilibrium oxidation at the exposed surfaces and limited oxidation away from the surfaces. Therefore, DLO results in a heterogeneously aged material which can lead to underestimation of lifetime for in-service cable insulation. In this study, the presence of inhomogeneous aging caused by DLO was evaluated on cross-sectioned cable insulation specimens made of ethylene propylene rubber (EPR). The studies were performed on thermally aged specimens (165 °C, 1 day and 165 °C, 16 days) using local measurement techniques including nanoindentation, micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) - energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). All the results indicate some degree of heterogenous aging, with 165 °C, 16 days, aging demonstrating highest degree of oxidative degradation on the inside edges presumably caused due to copper catalyzed oxidation.

Pallaka, Madhusudhan Reddy↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dynamic Adaptive Relaying for Distribution Grids with High Inverter-Based Generation

The penetration of distributed energy resources (DERs) in distribution systems is rapidly increasing. This can lead to large variations in the operating load and the fault current seen by a relay, which can impact the reliability of overcurrent protection. Adaptive overcurrent relaying (AOCR) can address this concern by enabling the relay to adjust its pickup settings based on the system operating conditions. This paper presents a novel dynamic AOCR approach that allows the relays to locally estimate the pickup settings and dynamically modify them. The approach is based on a two-stage estimation algorithm that uses local measurements and system information to estimate the worst-case fault current and the relay pickup settings. The relay pickup settings are then dynamically modified based on the estimated fault current. The performance of the proposed approach is evaluated on multiple configurations of the EPRI J1 feeder and the IEEE 13-bus system. The results show that the proposed approach can effectively improve the reliability of overcurrent protection in distribution systems with DERs.

adaptive overcurrent protection↗
DOE OSTI2021

Decentralized Voltage Control of Large-Scale Distribution System with PVs Based on MADRL

This paper proposes a model-free decentralized control framework for the voltage regulation of large-scale distribution systems through the coordinated control of PV inverters. This is achieved by developing a novel interaction mechanism between the surrogate model and the centralized training and decentralized execution multiagent deep reinforcement learning framework. Specifically, the sparse Gaussian processes regression method is first utilized to develop the surrogate model of the original distribution system for reward calculation during the training stage, where each agent represents a sub-region in the centralized fashion for coordination strategy learning. After that, the learned control rules are used to inform controllers within each sub-region for real-time decisions with only local measurements. Comparative tests among various methods on the EPRI Ckt5 test system demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.

distribution system↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Cyber Threat Mitigation Approach For Wide Area Control of SVCs using Stability Monitoring

We propose a stability monitoring approach for the mitigation of cyber threats directed at the wide area control (WAC) system used for coordinated control of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) used for power oscillation damping (POD) of active power flow on inter-area tie lines. The approach involves monitoring the modes of the active power oscillation on an inter-area tie line using the Matrix Pencil (MP) method. We use the stability characteristics of the observed modes as a proxy for the presence of destabilizing cyber threats. We monitor the system modes to determine whether any destabilizing modes appear after the WAC system engages to control the POD. If the WAC signal exacerbates the POD performance, the FACTS falls back to POD using local measurements. The proposed approach does not require an expansive system-wide view of the network. We simulate replay, control integrity, and timing attacks for a test system and present results that demonstrate the performance of the SM approach for mitigation.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Localized Cyber Threat Mitigation Approach For Wide Area Control of FACTS

We propose a localized oscillation amplitude monitoring (OAM) method for the mitigation of cyber threats directed at the wide area control (WAC) system used to coordinate control of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) for power oscillation damping (POD) of active power flow on inter-area tie lines. The method involves monitoring the inter-area tie line active power oscillation amplitude over a sliding window. We use system instability - inferred from oscillation amplitudes growing instead of damping - as evidence of an indication of a malfunction in the WAC of FACTS, possibly indicative of a cyber attack. Monitoring the presence of such a growth allows us to determine whether any destabilizing behaviors appear after the WAC system engages to control the POD. If the WAC signal increases the oscillation amplitude over time, thereby diminishing the POD performance, the FACTS falls back to POD using local measurements. The proposed method does not require an expansive system-wide view of the network. We simulate replay, control integrity, and timing attacks for a test system and present results that demonstrate the performance of the OAM method for mitigation.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Vulnerability of a VOC-Based Inverter Due to Noise Injection and Its Mitigation

Even though virtual oscillator control (VOC)-based inverters do not communicate with each other, they need to make local measurements for control. The impact of tampering with these measured or sensed signals on the performance of a VOC-based inverter and synchronization of multiple such inverters is an important but open-ended issue. As such, this letter explores the impact of intentional side-channel noise intrusion (SNI) on the synchronization of VOC-based communication-free self-synchronizing inverters (CFSIs). Two different scenarios are investigated via experimental and analytical studies using a half-bridge neutral point clamped (NPC) single-phase CFSI. Furthermore, they address the impact of SNI on the ability of a CFSI to ensure a stable 60-Hz limit cycle and on the parallel operation of two such CFSIs to ensure synchronism to a common 60-Hz load frequency.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Autonomous Restoration of Networked Microgrids Using Communication-Free Smart Sensing and Protection Units

Here this paper presents autonomous restoration of networked microgrids using distributed energy resources (DERs), inverter-based resources (IBRs) in general, and controllable assets of intelligence without communication to achieve a extremely resilient power system restoration. The main innovation of this work lies in use of real-time smart sensing and decision making that enable autonomous recombination of islanded microgrids, which are individually black-started by local grid-forming (GFM) inverter units. The smart circuit breakers (SCBs) designed and demonstrated here play critical roles in the restoration process to achieve autonomy; the autonomous restoration scheme is not pre-engineered and may be subject to encounter overloading, live or downed segments as the boundary of the microgrids dynamically expands without prior knowledge and only with local measurement. We demonstrate autonomous microgrid restoration both in simulation of a modified IEEE 13-bus system, and in a hardware testbed comprising 24 GFM-IBRs and 6-SCBs, depicting several scenarios to evaluate their functionalities and interoperability. This work validates high potential of extremely resilient microgrid using novel approaches for inverter-based bottom-up system restoration in a communication-free paradigm.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Random Quantum Circuits

Quantum circuits—built from local unitary gates and local measurements—are a new playground for quantum many-body physics and a tractable setting to explore universal collective phenomena far from equilibrium. These models have shed light on longstanding questions about thermalization and chaos, and on the underlying universal dynamics of quantum information and entanglement. In addition, such models generate new sets of questions and give rise to phenomena with no traditional analog, such as dynamical phase transitions in quantum systems that are monitored by an external observer. Quantum circuit dynamics is also topical in view of experimental progress in building digital quantum simulators that allow control of precisely these ingredients. Randomness in the circuit elements allows a high level of theoretical control, with a key theme being mappings between real-time quantum dynamics and effective classical lattice models or dynamical processes. Many of the universal phenomena that can be identified in this tractable setting apply to much wider classes of more structured many-body dynamics.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2021

Peer-to-Peer Energy Management System for Distributed Microgrid Coordination [SWR-21-92]

Resiliency is one of the key challenges in today's power system. Natural disasters and cyber-attacks both can limit communications between microgrids and the central management system. Thus, having a Distributed Microgrid Coordination (DMC) algorithm can improve the system resiliency, which enables the microgrids to operate without communication with the central management system. Peer-to-Peer Energy Management System for Distributed Microgrid Coordination adopts a primal-dual approach, where each microgrid controller keeps a local estimate of the dual variables. The estimate is updated with local measurements and peer-to-peer communication, leading to a fully distributed algorithm. While the DMC is developed for microgrid coordination, it can be used for general distributed control purpose.

Li, Yashen↗
DOE OSTI2025

Catalyst-Vision (PEM Catalyst Layer Image Analysis Tool) [SWR-25-100]

Catalyst-Vision (PEM Catalyst Layer Image Analysis Tool) provides an advanced Python-based tool, primarily designed for use in a Jupyter/Colab notebook, for the quantitative morphological analysis of pre-segmented shapes. While developed for analyzing PEM catalyst layers from microscopy, its methodology is suitable for characterizing any grayscale object provided on a uniform white background. The tool uses a robust computer vision pipeline based on the Euclidean Distance Transform and skeletonization to accurately measure local thickness and tortuosity, providing a comprehensive characterization of an object's geometry and internal texture. If you find this code useful, please cite our preprint as: Chan, Ai-Lin and Hayden, Steven and Harvey, Steven P. and Smeaton, Michelle and Okrucky, Caleb and Watt, John and Ulična, Soňa and Spurgeon, Steven and Jungjohann, Katherine and Alia, Shaun, Mechanism-informed breakdown: understanding degradation by controlling voltage hold patterns in PEM water electrolyzers. Preprint (2025).

Spurgeon, Steven [National Laboratory of the Rocki↗
DOE OSTI2021

Mitigating Phase Unbalance for Distribution Systems with High Penetrations of Solar PV (Final Technical Report)

Distribution system operators have traditionally limited unbalance among phases by maintaining similar loadings on each phase. High penetrations of distributed solar PV continually change the net loading on each phase, resulting in time-varying phase unbalances that can damage three-phase devices such as three-phase motors, violate grid codes, and increase technical losses. This project has developed several control strategies for the reactive power outputs of solar PV inverters in order to mitigate power quality issues related to phase unbalance. These control strategies include a decentralized approach that is solely based on local measurements, distributed and grouped approaches that consider subsets of loads and PV generators, and a centralized approach that leverages measurements from a variety of locations in order to compute optimal reactive power setpoints for each inverter. Variants of the controllers handle challenges relevant to practical implementations, including noisy measurements, delayed communications, and reactive power limits. Moreover, the project developed theory that provides convergence guarantees for systems with multiple interacting controllers as well as “balanceability” certificates that ensure satisfaction of phase unbalance requirements with variable loading. The controllers were integrated with NRECA’s Open Modeling Framework (omf.coop) and evaluated using actual distribution system models obtained from several NRECA member utilities. Application of the controllers results in significant improvements to phase unbalance in these test cases with decreases from base case levels of over 3% to under 0.5%, which is within the 2% IEC phase unbalance standard.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Materials Dynamics

The Materials Dynamics area of leadership focuses on understanding process-structure-properties-performance (PSPP) relationships for the extreme conditions of dynamic loading. This research encompasses controlled synthesis of materials to meet dynamic performance requirements and entails computational coupling across length and time scales for three-dimensional microstructure modeling. For this leadership area, we define dynamic loading as strain rates ≥ 10 3 /s and often, high pressures. A key grand challenge of this area is to predict and measure the evolution of microstructural phases, defect structures, and electronic structure under dynamic conditions while also measuring local temperature to understand transition states. Solving this challenge will require agile, multi-dimensional data analysis and interpretation capability.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Grid-Connected Modular Soft-Switching Solid State Transformers (M-S4T)

The objective of this project is to develop and verify the concept of a flexible and modular soft-switching solid-state transformer (M-S4T) for direct grid-connected applications. The ability to directly connect power electronics converters to the medium voltage grid (4 kV – 13 kV), and to potentially replace the passive and bulky, but ubiquitous 60 hertz service transformer in the 25 kVA to 100 kVA range, with a more flexible and controllable device, has been regarded as the ‘holy grail’ in grid control. However, this has proven to be extremely difficult. This project has developed the solutions to several key challenges of the direct grid-connected power electronics and realized a 7.2 kV M-S4T prototype. First, a protection method to protect the M-S4T from the high voltages (110 kV for the 13 kV system) that occur on the grid due to transients and lightning strikes have been developed and experimentally verified. Second, the realization and the operation of the M-S4T based on high-voltage SiC devices (>3.3 kV) and a medium-frequency medium-voltage low-leakage transformer in a single-stage solid-state transformer with zero-voltage switching, low dv/dt, and low electromagnetic interference has been successfully demonstrated up to 7.5 kV peak. Third, an oil-cooling system and stable communication and distributed control system for converter module voltage sharing have been developed and experimentally verified. The developed M-S4T has realized a modular universal high-performance power conversion system. This conversion system is scalable to different voltage and power levels and adaptable to four-quadrant bidirectional operation. Moreover, the use of passive cooling techniques meets the equipment life requirements, and the lightning protection scheme fulfills the basic insulation level specifications for direct grid connection. Such power conversion system opens up near-term opportunities, including energy storage, solar PV, or electric vehicle charging with significant cost and footprint savings. In the longer term, the possibility of replacing the utility distribution transformer with an M-S4T will be transformative for future distribution grids with a compact footprint and full controllability to enable high renewable energy and storage penetration. In addition to the main project, this report expands on the Plus-Up projected including as part of the main award. This project developed and demonstrated the technology for autonomous collaborative inverters that can be connected in an ad hoc manner to the grid. The aim of the project was to: (1) evaluate the existing techniques for grid-connected inverters and find their limitations; (2) develop detailed requirements for grid-connected inverters in the modern grid with millions of active nodes; (3) design a unified control strategy that brings more autonomy and intelligence to grid-connected inverters, and addresses parts of the issues with the existing techniques. The proposed technique, called UniCon, enables inverters to 1) connect/disconnect to/from the grid in an ad hoc manner; (2) work based on local sensing. Slow communication could be used for a more optimized behavior; (3) work automatically in both grid-forming/grid-following mode; (4) handle large disturbances, e.g., big load step and fault, in an oscillation-free manner; (5) work collaboratively with other inverters in steady-state and during transients. UniCon can be implemented in the middle-level control; hence it is agnostic to the vendor and to the implementation of the inner voltage/current and protection loops. Furthermore, a new synchronization scheme, based on deep learning, was developed that can extract the grid voltage phase and amplitude in a stable manner. The method is cheap to implement can improve the dynamic performance of the grid-connected inverters during fast transients, e.g., fault. The proposed control scheme was validated by (1) MATLAB/Simulink; (2) hardware-in-the-loop results, and; (3) experimental results using three inverters that form a microgrid in a down-scaled feeder. Lastly, both the M-S4T and UniCon have achieved promising tangible paths to markets. In the case of the M-S4T, the underlying technology — the Soft Switching Solid State Transformer (S4T) developed at the Georgia Tech Center for Distributed Energy (GT-CDE) has been licensed by GridBlock from the Georgia Tech Research Corporation, and GridBlock has been working with manufacturing partner Jabil (one of the largest US-based contract manufacturers) and system integrator Power Secure (largest deployer of microgrids in the US with 4.7 GW under management), to meet the strong initial demand. Similarly, GridBlock has an exclusive license to the UniCon technology, developed under this award by GT-CDE. The UniCon provides an intermediate control layer that enables the implementation of the higher-level ‘transactive’ control commands for the system. The architecture of the system - slow communications with the cloud for system optimization and setpoints, and the use of locally measured quantities for real-time control, provide a very robust and secure way of implementing a real-time must-run grid that is also secure and stable. This is a brand-new functionality that is critical for the future grid and key to GridBlock’s business model.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Uncovering New Physics in the Cosmic Microwave Background: Developing Novel Theoretical Models and Machine-Learning-Powered Constraints

The search for evidence of new physics via its signatures in the cosmos is a cornerstone goal of the Office of High Energy Physics in the DOE Office of Science. Indeed, the current concordance cosmological model provides intriguing hints for beyond-the-standard-model (BSM) physics, such as dark matter and dark energy. Recently, a potential breakdown has appeared in this model, which could be initial evidence toward a further important revision in our fundamental theoretical understanding of cosmology. This breakdown is reflected in disagreements between inferences of the current expansion rate of the universe, H 0 (the Hubble constant), based on indirect, cosmological data (e.g., from the early universe) and based on direct, local measurements. Despite significant effort, a compelling new concordance cosmological model has yet to be found; achieving significant progress on this front was the first major focus of the project. Theoretical considerations indicate that if the observational discrepancies are not due to systematic errors, they strongly suggest new physics operating in the redshift range just prior to recombination, when cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons last scattered. Crucially, almost all such models produce unique signatures in the CMB temperature and polarization power spectra, which will be measured with unprecedented precision by ongoing and upcoming experiments, including the DOE-supported CMB-S4 project. However, these subtle hints of new physics must be uncovered from beneath a swath of Galactic and extragalactic foreground contamination. Current CMB analysis methods, although powerful, do not optimally infer the CMB power spectrum in the presence of non-Gaussian foregrounds. There is thus scope for theoretical improvement in this foundational challenge of cosmological inference, which formed the second major focus of the project. The primary objectives of the project were two-fold: (1) to develop new theoretical models in cosmology that can restore concordance amongst the full suite of cosmological data sets, thereby potentially providing evidence of novel BSM physics; (2) to develop new theoretical machinery to enable significant sensitivity improvements in searches for new physics in cosmology, particularly via the CMB power spectrum. The two objectives are intertwined, as the analysis methodology improvements in (2) will enable the tightest possible constraints on the signatures of new physics predicted by the novel scenarios in (1). The theoretical approaches to restore concordance focused on models involving novel scalar field dynamics in the pre-recombination universe (the “early dark energy” scenario and modifications thereof), as well as couplings between this field and other components in the standard cosmological model, such as dark matter. We also studied a model featuring a generalization of the decaying dark matter scenario, in which a sub-component of dark matter converts into dark radiation at late times in cosmic history. While these ideas are mostly driven by phenomenological considerations, this tactic has proven extremely successful in cosmology throughout the past few decades, including in the early history of evidence for dark matter and dark energy. The new theoretical machinery envisioned in (2) is undergirded by developments in signal processing and machine learning, which will enable improvements in CMB power spectrum estimation in the presence of non-Gaussian foreground contaminants. In turn, this will yield optimal sensitivity in searches for new physics in the CMB, by maximizing the cosmological information that is extracted from this observable. The most ambitious outcome of this work would be the construction of a new cosmological model that restores concordance amongst data sets. Although the individual models studied here did not fully achieve that goal, significant progress in narrowing down the model space was made, as described below. Moreover, the outcome of the methodological improvements in (2) will significantly impact a wide range of theoretical cosmology, by enabling the tightest possible constraints on any model that leaves novel signatures in the CMB temperature and polarization power spectra.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Rock Valley Dense Gravity Acquisition

Characterizing the shallow structure of the Rock Valley region of the Nevada National Security Site is a critical component of the Rock Valley Direct Comparison project. Geophysical data of the region is needed for operational decisions, to constrain geologic models used for simulation, and to facilitate the analysis of future explosive source data. Local measurements of gravity are a key piece of geophysical information that helps to resolve the underlying geologic composition, fault structure, and density characteristics, yet, in the Rock Valley region these measurements are sparse on the scale of the testbed. In this report, we present the details of a recent gravity data acquisition survey designed to collect a dense dataset in the region of interest that complements the existing gravity work but greatly enhances our resolution. This dataset will be integrated with a complementary Los Alamos National Laboratory gravity collection and combined with the existing seismic data in a joint inversion. These measurements were conducted over two weeks with a portable gravimeter and high-resolution GPS and include repeat measurements at a USGS base station as well as reoccupation of gravity sites in the regional dataset. This collection of over 100 new dense gravity measurements will facilitate refinement of the existing Geologic Framework Model and directly complement newly acquired dense seismic data, ultimately improving the project’s ability to investigate the direct comparison of shallow earthquake and explosive sources.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗