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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2015

Toxicological responses of environmental mixtures: Environmental metal mixtures display synergistic induction of metal-responsive and oxidative stress genes in placental cells

Exposure to elevated levels of the toxic metals inorganic arsenic (iAs) and cadmium (Cd) represents a major global health problem. These metals often occur as mixtures in the environment, creating the potential for interactive or synergistic biological effects different from those observed in single exposure conditions. In the present study, environmental mixtures collected from two waste sites in China and comparable mixtures prepared in the laboratory were tested for toxicogenomic response in placental JEG-3 cells. These cells serve as a model for evaluating cellular responses to exposures during pregnancy. One of the mixtures was predominated by iAs and one by Cd. Six gene biomarkers were measured in order to evaluate the effects from the metal mixtures using dose and time-course experiments including: heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and metallothionein isoforms (MT1A, MT1F and MT1G) previously shown to be preferentially induced by exposure to either iAs or Cd, and metal transporter genes aquaporin-9 (AQP9) and ATPase, Cu{sup 2+} transporting, beta polypeptide (ATP7B). There was a significant increase in the mRNA expression levels of ATP7B, HO-1, MT1A, MT1F, and MT1G in mixture-treated cells compared to the iAs or Cd only-treated cells. Notably, the genomic responses were observed at concentrations significantly lower than levels found at the environmental collection sites. These data demonstrate that metal mixtures increase the expression of gene biomarkers in placental JEG-3 cells in a synergistic manner. Taken together, the data suggest that toxic metals that co-occur may induce detrimental health effects that are currently underestimated when analyzed as single metals. - Highlights: • Toxicogenomic responses of environmental metal mixtures assessed • Induction of ATP7B, HO-1, MT1A, MT1F and MT1G by metal mixtures observed in placental cells • Higher gene induction in response to metal mixtures versus single metal treatments.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Measurement report: Molecular composition, optical properties, and radiative effects of water-soluble organic carbon in snowpack samples from northern Xinjiang, China

Abstract. Water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) in the cryosphere has an important impact on the biogeochemistry cycling and snow–ice surface energy balance through changes in the surface albedo. This work reports on the chemical characterization of WSOC in 28 representative snowpack samples collected across a regional area of northern Xinjiang, northwestern China. We employed multimodal analytical chemistry techniques to investigate both bulk and molecular-level composition of WSOC and its optical properties, informing the follow-up radiative forcing (RF) modeling estimates. Based on the geographic differences and proximity of emission sources, the snowpack collection sites were grouped as urban/industrial (U), rural/remote (R), and soil-influenced (S) sites, for which average WSOC total mass loadings were measured as 1968 ± 953 ng g−1 (U), 885 ± 328 ng g−1 (R), and 2082 ± 1438 ng g−1 (S), respectively. The S sites showed the higher mass absorption coefficients at 365 nm (MAC365) of 0.94 ± 0.31 m2 g−1 compared to those of U and R sites (0.39 ± 0.11 m2 g−1 and 0.38 ± 0.12 m2 g−1, respectively). Bulk composition of WSOC in the snowpack samples and its basic source apportionment was inferred from the excitation–emission matrices and the parallel factor analysis featuring relative contributions of one protein-like (PRLIS) and two humic-like (HULIS-1 and HULIS-2) components with ratios specific to each of the S, U, and R sites. Additionally, a sample from site 120 showed unique pollutant concentrations and spectroscopic features remarkably different from all other U, R, and S samples. Molecular-level characterization of WSOC using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) provided further insights into chemical differences among four types of samples (U, R, S, and 120). Specifically, many reduced-sulfur-containing species with high degrees of unsaturation and aromaticity were uniquely identified in U samples, suggesting an anthropogenic source. Aliphatic/protein-like species showed the highest contribution in R samples, indicating their biogenic origin. The WSOC components from S samples showed high oxygenation and saturation levels. A few unique CHON and CHONS compounds with high unsaturation degree and molecular weight were detected in the 120 sample, which might be anthraquinone derivatives from plant debris. Modeling of the WSOC-induced RF values showed warming effects of 0.04 to 0.59 W m−2 among different groups of sites, which contribute up to 16 % of that caused by black carbon (BC), demonstrating the important influences of WSOC on the snow energy budget.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Frequencies and expression levels of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) in circulating tumor RNA (ctRNA) in various cancer types

Highlights: • Blood were collected from gastric, colorectal, lung, breast, prostate cancer patients. • PD-L1 expression was detected in the plasma at varying frequencies. • No PD-L1 mRNA was detected in cancer-free individuals. • PD-L1 mRNA can be detected and quantitated in ctRNA of cancer patients. Precision medicine and prediction of therapeutic response requires monitoring potential biomarkers before and after treatment. Liquid biopsies provide noninvasive prognostic markers such as circulating tumor DNA and RNA. Circulating tumor RNA (ctRNA) in blood is also used to identify mutations in genes of interest, but additionally, provides information about relative expression levels of important genes. In this study, we analyzed PD-L1 expression in ctRNA isolated from various cancer types. Tumors inhibit antitumor response by modulating the immune checkpoint proteins programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and its cognate receptor PD1. The expression of these genes has been implicated in evasion of immune response and resistance to targeted therapies.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2016

The High Burnup Structure: Overview of Properties and Recent Findings

During irradiation in a nuclear reactor, the fuel pellet experiences non-uniform fission density and intense thermomechanical solicitations, which result in alterations and restructuring occurring non-homogeneously in the fuel volume. The irradiated fuel is characterized by a highly heterogeneous structure, and a corresponding heterogeneous distribution of phases and properties. One of the most significant restructuring processes affecting the fuel is the formation of the high burnup structure (HBS) occurring at relatively high local burnup and relatively low temperature. At the optical and scanning electron microscopy level, HBS is characterized by subdivision of the original grains into sub-micron grains and in the formation of a new micron-size class of pores which collect the fission gas. The changes associated with the HBS formation extend to cover a broad range of scales, down to the nanometer level and up to the macroscopic, engineering scale. The macroscopic properties determining the performance and the safety behaviour of the fuel are affected by the presence of HBS. This paper presents highlights from fuel safety studies performed at JRC-ITU and in other laboratories applying a broad spectrum of PIE techniques. The technical challenges associated with the experimental characterization of highly radioactive irradiated fuel at a 'multi-scale' level are also discussed. The investigation of HBS and high burnup fuel properties and behaviour still provides new and, in some cases, unexpected findings. More results are being produced adopting advanced methods of analysis; the integration of old and new knowledge may provide the needed insight for the full understanding of these exciting processes. (authors)

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
NASA NTRS2013

Population Pharmacokinetics of Intranasal Scopolamine

Introduction: An intranasal gel dosage formulation of scopolamine (INSCOP) was developed for the treatment of Space Motion Sickness (SMS).The bioavailability and pharmacokinetics (PK) was evaluated using data collected in Phase II IND protocols. We reported earlier statistically significant gender differences in PK parameters of INSCOP at a dose level of 0.4 mg. To identify covariates that influence PK parameters of INSCOP, we examined population covariates of INSCOP PK model for 0.4 mg dose. Methods: Plasma scopolamine concentrations versus time data were collected from 20 normal healthy human subjects (11 male/9 female) after a 0.4 mg dose. Phoenix NLME was employed for PK analysis of these data using gender, body weight and age as covariates for model selection. Model selection was based on a likelihood ratio test on the difference of criteria (-2LL). Statistical significance for base model building and individual covariate analysis was set at P less than 0.05{delta(-2LL)=3.84}. Results: A one-compartment pharmacokinetic model with first-order elimination best described INSCOP concentration ]time profiles. Inclusion of gender, body weight and age as covariates individually significantly reduced -2LL by the cut-off value of 3.84(P less than 0.05) when tested against the base model. After the forward stepwise selection and backward elimination steps, gender was selected to add to the final model which had significant influence on absorption rate constant (ka) and the volume of distribution (V) of INSCOP. Conclusion: A population pharmacokinetic model for INSCOP has been identified and gender was a significant contributing covariate for the final model. The volume of distribution and Ka were significantly higher in males than in females which confirm gender-dependent pharmacokinetics of scopolamine after administration of a 0.4 mg dose.

Wu, L.↗
NASA NTRS2023

The 50-Year Landsat Collection 2 Archive

The Landsat global consolidated data archive now exceeds 50 years. In recognition of the need for consistently processed data across the Landsat satellite series, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) initiated collection-based processing of the entire archive that was processed as Collection 1 in 2016. In preparation for the data from the now successfully launched Landsat 9, the USGS reprocessed the Landsat archive as Collection 2 in 2020. This paper describes the rationale for, and the contents and advancements provided by Collection 2, and highlights the differences between the Collection 1 and Collection 2 products. Notably, the Collection 2 products have improved geolocation and, for the first time, the USGS provides a global inventory of Level 2 surface reflectance and surface temperature products. Also for the first time, the USGS used a commercial cloud computing architecture to efficiently process the archive and enable direct cloud access of the Landsat products. The paper concludes with discussion of likely improvements expected in Collection 3 in preparation for the Landsat Next mission that is planned for launch in the early 2030s.

Christopher J Crawford↗
DOE OSTI2013

Do indicators influence communication in SEA? — Experience from the Chinese practice

Indicators have become one of the primary tools for Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in the Chinese context, but what does this use of indicators mean for communication within the SEA processes? This article explores how the selection and use of indicators influence the communication between different stakeholders involved in SEA. The article provides a conceptual communication model covering directions and level of communication. Using this model on empirical findings from interviews with two specific SEA cases and from general experience collected through an online survey, the results suggest that indicators are used mainly in internal communication although a change of approach, with more external communication and stakeholder engagement, is taking place as a consequence of working with indicators in the SEA. However, the external communication mainly involves the experts and other relevant sectors (planning, energy, land use, forestry, etc.), the involvement of the public and NGOs is still not well implemented in Chinese SEA practice, and the direction of communication is mainly one-way channel of providing information rather than a two-way channel of dialogue and participation. Highlights: • Exploring indicators' influence on the communication in SEA with Chinese experience. • Providing a conceptual model covering directions and level of communication in SEA. • Empirical findings from two specific SEA cases and collected general experience. • The external communication mainly involves the experts and other sectors. • More one-way information provision than two-way dialogue and participation.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Simulation of charge readout with segmented tiles in nEXO

nEXO is a proposed experiment to search for the neutrino-less double beta decay (0νββ) of 136 Xe in a tonne-scale liquid xenon time projection chamber (TPC). The nEXO TPC will be equipped with charge collection tiles to form the anode. In this work, the charge reconstruction performance of this anode design is studied with a dedicated simulation package. A multi-variate method and a deep neural network are developed to distinguish simulated 0νββ signals from backgrounds arising from trace levels of natural radioactivity in the detector materials. These simulations indicate that the nEXO TPC with charge-collection tiles shows promising capability to discriminate the 0νββ signal from backgrounds. Furthermore, the estimated half-life sensitivity for 0νββ decay is improved by 20 32)% with the multi-variate (deep neural network) methods considered here, e sensitivity estimated in the nEXO pre-conceptual design report.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2018

Air Dispersion Modeling of Radioactive Releases During Proposed 236Z Rubble Pile Removal Activities

This report is part of the planning process for the removal of the 236Z rubble remaining as of January 1, 2018, at the Plutonium Finishing Plant (PFP) on the Hanford Site. This report documents an analysis considering standard techniques for the removal of demolition rubble. It does not document any decisions about the removal approaches. This document is intended to guide the establishment of a boundary for the application of an air monitoring regime. Atmospheric dispersion modeling using estimated release rates has been conducted to provide information on the location and levels of radioactive contamination that may be expected as the result of rubble removal activities. Hourly meteorological data collected over a 6-year period (2004–2009) were used to examine the effects of wind speed, direction, and stability on projected concentrations of contaminants in air and deposited on nearby surfaces. The source terms modeled in this report were based on the residual transuranic contamination levels that are anticipated to remain in the 236Z rubble following building demolition. The potential airborne concentrations were established using the five-factor formula from DOE-HDBK-3010 (DOE 1994) considering material-at-risk, damage ratio, airborne release fraction, respirable fraction, and leak path factor. Radioactive contamination emissions were calculated by release mechanism and rubble pile area for on-shift and off-shift activities. The emissions from the applicable sources were combined to provide emissions estimates for each day from each cleanup area. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) AERMOD computer code was used to estimate atmospheric dispersion and deposition of the released radioactive materials in the immediate vicinity of the planned rubble removal activities Both airborne and surface concentrations were modeled with AERMOD. Hourly derived air concentrations (DAC) were modeled for an array of receptors covering the rubble pile site and surrounding area. Peak (95th and 99th percentile) values of time-integrated air concentrations at these receptor points are derived from these hourly values, with modeling results reported as total incremental air concentrations in DAC-hours occurring over the selected time period. Total accumulated deposition amounts were also evaluated with AERMOD using the same array of receptors, with results reported as disintegrations per minute (dpm) per 100 cm2. Each rubble pile was considered in terms of its size, location, and estimated contamination levels. The modeling was based on the assumed sequence of the rubble removal activities. The results in this report are based on cleanup schedules and methods proposed by CHPRC. As of January 1, 2018, there are broadly three large rubble piles (west, footprint, and east) remaining of the 236Z Building process cell. It is assumed that the overall cleanup will require either 1) 30 days over a 6-week period, or 2) 60 days over a 12-week period. Work was assumed to be performed during 10-hour day shifts. The analysis shows that some releases of radioactive material are to be anticipated during the cleanup of the 236Z rubble piles. The modeling results presented here are closely tied to the details of how the rubble removal is to be conducted. The results indicate that for the rubble removal, the radiological exposures from the planned activities are predicted to be well below the designated limits for air and soil exposures. The cleanup of the 236Z main process cell rubble is expected to release some alpha-emitting radionuclides. However, results based on 6 years of hourly climatological data, two representative cleanup periods, realistic mitigating actions, and a bounding source term indicate that concentrations at the fence line of the PFP facilities should remain well below 12 DAC-hours/week. The results presented in this report are a reevaluation of a subset of the results presented in PNNL-20173 Rev. 4.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2023

Assessing complexity and dynamics in epidemics: geographical barriers and facilitators of foot-and-mouth disease dissemination

Introduction: Physical and non-physical processes that occur in nature may influence biological processes, such as dissemination of infectious diseases. However, such processes may be hard to detect when they are complex systems. Because complexity is a dynamic and non-linear interaction among numerous elements and structural levels in which specific effects are not necessarily linked to any one specific element, cause-effect connections are rarely or poorly observed. Methods: To test this hypothesis, the complex and dynamic properties of geo-biological data were explored with high-resolution epidemiological data collected in the 2001 Uruguayan foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) epizootic that mainly affected cattle. County-level data on cases, farm density, road density, river density, and the ratio of road (or river) length/county perimeter were analyzed with an open-ended procedure that identified geographical clustering in the first 11 epidemic weeks. Two questions were asked: (i) do geo-referenced epidemiologic data display complex properties? and (ii) can such properties facilitate or prevent disease dissemination? Results: Emergent patterns were detected when complex data structures were analyzed, which were not observed when variables were assessed individually. Complex properties–including data circularity–were demonstrated. The emergent patterns helped identify 11 counties as ‘disseminators’ or ‘facilitators’ (F) and 264 counties as ‘barriers’ (B) of epidemic spread. In the early epidemic phase, F and B counties differed in terms of road density and FMD case density. Focusing on non-biological, geographical data, a second analysis indicated that complex relationships may identify B-like counties even before epidemics occur. Discussion: Geographical barriers and/or promoters of disease dispersal may precede the introduction of emerging pathogens. If corroborated, the analysis of geo-referenced complexity may support anticipatory epidemiological policies.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Chemical Imaging of Atmospheric Organic Particles in the Southern Great Plains Field Campaign Report

The main goal of this field project was to characterize the chemical and physical properties of atmospheric particles representative of the Southern Great Plains (SGP) environment to establish a relationship between the composition of aerosol particles and their atmospheric impacts. The specific research efforts were focused on in-depth microscopy studies of chemical and physical properties of atmospheric organic particles collected at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) SGP observatory. An array of novel molecular-level characterization and chemical imaging approaches were used to characterize chemical composition of particles and elucidate fundamental processes governing their atmospheric aging, evolution of chemical composition, optical properties, cloud formation ability, and implications for particle-cloud interactions – the most challenging problems relevant to predictive understanding of aerosol effects on climate.(1, 2) Atmospheric particles consist of a complex mixture of organic compounds with a wide range of molecular structures, morphologies, physical properties, and chemical reactivity. The chemical composition, morphology, and phase state of atmospheric particles are of crucial importance for understanding the formation and reaction mechanisms of particles, their atmospheric evolution, and their impact on climate. It is of great interest to understand how the chemical and morphological particle microstructure affects their physicochemical properties such as chemical reactivity, thermodynamics of gas-particle partitioning, phase separations inside individual particles, hygroscopicity, optical properties, and ability to form liquid droplets (cloud condensation nuclei) and ice crystals (ice nuclei) in clouds. The phase state of organic particles, which yet remains poorly understood, plays a key role in their physicochemical properties and has important implications in various atmospheric processes. Fundamental understanding of these physicochemical properties and their possible evolution in time requires advanced analytical approaches for chemical imaging of particles with a resolution on the scale of 10-100 nm.(3) Comprehensive characterization of the size-dependent chemical composition of individual particles collected at the site was carried out using advanced molecular-level characterization and imaging approaches to identify their possible sources and to correlate to their climatic properties.

Southern Great Plains, aerosols, HI-SCALE field ca↗
DOE OSTI2013

Nature of the Interfaces Between Stoichiometric and Under-Stoichiometric MoO 3 and 4,4'- N , N '-dicarbazole-biphenyl: A Combined Theoretical and Experimental Study

A combination of density functional theory and experimental measurements via ultraviolet and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies is used to explore the nature of the interface between the stoichiometric molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) or its under-stoichiometric counterpart with oxygen vacancies, and an organic hole-transport layer represented by 4,4'-N,N'-dicarbazole-biphenyl (CBP). Upon adsorption of CBP, special attention is paid to i) the appearance of gap states and the reduction of the molybdenum oxide surface, and ii) the evolution of the work function. Very good agreement is found between theory and experiment. The near alignment of the CBP highest occupied molecular orbital with the Fermi level and the conduction band edge of molybdenum oxide points to facile hole collection or injection.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Exploring the effects of data quality, data worth, and redundancy of CO2 gas pressure and saturation data on reservoir characterization through PEST Inversion

This study examined the impacts of reservoir properties on CO2 migration after subsurface injection and evaluated the possibility of characterizing reservoir properties using CO2 monitoring data such as saturation distribution. The injection reservoir was assumed to be located 1400-1500 m below the ground surface such that CO2 remained in the supercritical state. The reservoir was assumed to contain layers with alternating conductive and resistive properties, which is analogous to actual geological formations such as the Mount Simon Sandstone unit. The CO2 injection simulation used a cylindrical grid setting in which the injection well was situated at the center of the domain, which extended up to 8000 m from the injection well. The CO2 migration was simulated using the PNNL-developed simulator STOMP-CO2e (the water-salt-CO2 module). We adopted a nonlinear parameter estimation and optimization modeling software package, PEST, for automated reservoir parameter estimation. We explored the effects of data quality, data worth, and data redundancy on the detectability of reservoir parameters using CO2 saturation monitoring data, by comparing PEST inversion results using data with different levels of noises, various numbers of monitoring wells and locations, and different data collection spacing and temporal sampling intervals. This study yielded insight into the use of CO2 saturation monitoring data for reservoir characterization and how to design the monitoring system to optimize data worth and reduce data redundancy.

Carbon sequestration↗
DOE OSTI2018

Identifying the SUMO1 modification of FAM122A leading to the degradation of PP2A-Cα by ubiquitin-proteasome system

Highlights: • FAM122A can be modified by SUMO1 and the sumoylation is desumoylated by SENP1. • The SUMO1 modification site of FAM122A is lysine 89. • The sumoylated FAM122A degrades PP2A-Cα protein by ubiquitin-proteasome system. • The sumoylated FAM122A reduces the activity of PP2A and suppresses cell proliferations. FAM122A is a highly conserved protein in mammals. Here, we identify that FAM122A can be sumoylated at lysine 89, which can be de-conjugated by SENP1. Furthermore, the sumoylation of FAM122A reduces the PP2A-Cα protein level together with the reduced phosphatase activity of PP2A, which suppresses cell proliferation. Collectively, our results suggest that the sumoylation of FAM122A may have a significant role in cellular function.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

Targeted inhibition of disheveled PDZ domain via NSC668036 depresses fibrotic process

In this study, we determined the effects of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and Wnt/β-catenin signaling on myofibroblast differentiation of NIH/3T3 fibroblasts in vitro and evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of NSC668036 in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis murine model. In vitro study, NSC668036, a small organic inhibitor of the PDZ domain in Dvl, suppressed β-catenin-driven gene transcription and abolished TGF-β1-induced migration, expression of collagen I and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) in fibroblasts. In vivo study, we found that NSC668036 significantly suppressed accumulation of collagen I, α-SMA, and TGF-β1 but increased the expression of CK19, Occludin and E-cadherin that can inhibit pulmonary fibrogenesis. Because fibrotic lung exhibit aberrant activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, these data collectively suggest that inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling at the Dvl level may be an effective approach to the treatment of fibrotic lung diseases. - Highlights: • NSC668036 inhibited the proliferation and migration of NIH/3T3 fibroblasts. • NSC668036 suppressed the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. • TGF-β-induced stimulation of profibrotic responses were inhibited by NSC668036. • NSC668036 can inhibit the development of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2011

Quantitative enhancement of fatigue crack monitoring by imaging surface acoustic wave reflection in a space-cycle-load domain

The surface wave acoustic method is applied to the in-situ monitoring of fatigue crack initiation and evolution on tension specimens. A small low-frequency periodic loading is also applied, resulting in a nonlinear modulation of reflected pulses. The acoustic wave reflections are collected for: each experimental cycle; a range of applied tension and modulation load levels; and a range of spatial propagation positions, and are presented in image form to aid pattern identification. Salient features of the image are then extracted and processed to evaluate the initiation time of the crack and its subsequent size evolution until sample failure. Additionally, a method for enhancing signal to noise ratio in Ti-6242 alloy samples is demonstrated.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Nonperturbative spin–boson and spin–spin dynamics and nonlinear Fano interferences: A unified dissipaton theory based study

We consider the hybrid system–bath dynamics, based on the Yan’s dissipaton formalism [Y. J. Yan, J. Chem. Phys. 140, 054105 (2014)]. This theory provides a unified quasi-particle treatment on three distinct classes of quantum bath, coupled nonperturbatively to arbitrary quantum systems. In this work, to study the entangled system and bath polarization and nonlinear Fano interference, we incorporate further the time-dependent light field, which interacts with both the molecular system and the collective bath dipoles directly. Numerical demonstrations are carried out on a two-level system, with comparison between phonon and exciton baths, in both linear and nonlinear Fano interference regimes.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗