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Remote-sensing techniques based on the analysis of spectral reflectance, spectral emittance, thermal inertia, and radar measurements are reviewed. Specific applications of Landsat multispectral scanner are examined with emphasis on mineral exploration. The potential of satellite systems for detailed lithologic mapping is pointed out.
Most of Hawai'i's geothermal resources are blind—their manifestations, such as hot springs and steam vents, do not appear on the ground surface because the heated water flows far below. With the exception of $K\bar{i}lauea East Rift Zone$, in most areas of Hawai'i, high lateral permeability in the first kilometer below ground surface prevents surface thermal features from developing. As a methodology for discovering these blind resources, Play Fairway Analysis (PFA) involves finding potential locations of blind hydrothermal systems and describing potential geothermal sources in rift-zone settings. Using the PFA to find Hawai'i's geothermal resources, the University of Hawai'i (UH) conducted the Hawai‘i Play Fairway Project, Hawai'i's first statewide geothermal resource assessment since 1985. Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, the Hawai'i Play Fairway Project provided an updated resource assessment, a roadmap for additional exploration activities, and the identification of areas for further exploration. Benefitting from UH's core competency in earth sciences and experienced geothermal researchers, the project comprised three phases. During the first phase, the team identified, compiled, and ranked existing geologic, groundwater, and geophysical datasets relevant to subsurface heat, fluid and permeability. Using a Bayesian statistical approach, the team developed a statistical methodology to integrate these data into a resource probability map. The team evaluated the confidence in the probability value and considered development viability of areas with geothermal resources. With these analyses, the team identified 10 locations in the Hawaiian Islands for exploration activities. For the second phase, the team collected new groundwater data in 10 locations across the state and new geophysical data on $L\bar{a}na‘i, Maui$, and central Hawai'i Island and modeled topographically induced stress to better characterize subsurface permeability. Analyzing the subsurface stresses, the team evaluated the potential for fracture-induced permeability. The team inverted the MT and gravity data to produce 3D models of resistivity and density, respectively, on $L\bar{a}na‘i$, across $Haleakal\bar{a}'s$ SW rift (Maui), and surrounding Mauna Kea (Hawai‘i Island). The team developed and applied a new method for incorporating depth information about resistivity, density, and potential for fracture-induced permeability into the statistical method for computing resource probability in these three focus areas. The team incorporated the new groundwater results with the new geophysical results and the calculations of potential for fracture-induced permeability to produce updated maps of resource probability and confidence. Through combining data from the first and second phases, the team determined locations for further exploration during the third phase. For MT and gravity surveys, the team recommended $Kaua'i's$ $L\bar{i}hu'e$ $Basin$, the east rift of $Maui's$ $Haleakal\bar{a}$ volcano, and the southwest rift of Hawai'i Island's Mauna Loa volcano. The MT and gravity surveys aimed to enable improved confidence in the resource potential in these locations. For drilling deep groundwater well(s), the team recommended Southeast Mauna Kea and $L\bar{a}na's$ $P\bar{a}l\bar{a}wai$ $Basin$. During the third phase, further exploration involved drilling a groundwater well in $L\bar{a}na's$ $P\bar{a}l\bar{a}wai$ $Basin$ and performing more geophysical surveys. We deepened an existing water well proximal to our target area on $L\bar{a}na'i$ due to funding constraints that precluded us from spudding a new well that would exceed 1km depth. Drilling was preceded by a number of substantial elements including: writing an Environmental Assessment and the subsequent legal process, performance of deviation logging, lowering a camera down the well, coordinating site preparation with $P\bar{u}lama$ $L\bar{a}na'i$, shipping the UH-owned rig interisland, procuring supplies, and leading 3 community meetings on $L\bar{a}na'i$. Drilling occurred 24/7 the entire month of June 2019 over which time $L\bar{a}na'i$ $Well$ 10 was deepened from 427 m to 1057 m, with continuous core collected. We measured a roughly linear temperature gradient averaging 42°C/km and a maximum bottom hole temperature of 66°C. This gradient is more than twice the background for Hawai'i and within a range of gradients measured in this depth range for some exploration wells within KERZ. We consider these results encouraging for $L\bar{a}na'i's$ resource potential and recommend following with a slim hole within $L\bar{a}na'i's$ caldera (our target zone) to ~ 2 km. Further, the positive implications such results have for the island of O‘ahu are substantial - the shield stage of O'ahu's volcanoes ended 1-2 My earlier. However, O'ahu uses more electricity than the rest of the islands combined, and the utility recently called for 500-700MW of firm, dispatchable renewable electricity on O'ahu by 2033. In Phase 3, we also collected limited new encouraging groundwater data, and updated our thoughts on the probabilities of fluid and permeability at resource depths (Pr F = 1; Pr P = mostly unconstrained). Ultimately, we advocate for using our final probability of heat, and confidence in this probability, to drive the next phase of exploration. We contend further development of geothermal in Hawai‘i will enable the state to achieve its 100% renewable policy objective and Hawai'i to transition off of fossil fuels through geothermal discovery and development. The project not only produced a large amount of data and expanded the existing knowledge of Hawai'i's geothermal resources, but also produced publications, theses, presentations, core photos, datasets, media reports, television interviews, community events, and a blog. Students and new professionals benefitted from the project's hands-on research experiences and educational opportunities and earned awards and recognition.
The Carbon Storage Site Mapping Inquiry Tool (MapIT) is an online web mapping tool designed to help users discover available public-sourced data to facilitate data exploration in support of Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program Class VI Well Site permitting for the geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide.
The author has identified the following significant results. ERTS-1 data and aerial photography are proving to be a useful tool for the inventory and management of inland wetlands. Two examples of the application of remotely-sensed data to specific wetland management needs or requirements are discussed. Studies of the Great Dismal Swamp are utilizing ERTS-1 imagery and color IR photography in: (1) study area selection; (2) field inspection; (3) vegetation mapping; (4) identification of drainage characteristics and moisture regime; (5) location of intensive study areas; and (6) detection of change. Thematic extractions of ERTS-1 data made using the United States Geological Survey's Autographic Theme Extraction System are aiding analyses of swamp hydrologic regime and providing information pertinent to quick recognition and inventory of wetlands from ERTS-1. DCP'S in south Florida wetlands provide near-real time data for water resources managers. Data relayed by satellite can be entered into models to provide predictive data and water storage information for long-term and short-term decision making.
Observation and photographic data from the Apollo Soyuz Test Project are analyzed. The discussion is structured according to the fields of investigation including: geology, desert studies, oceanography, hydrology, and meteorology. The data were obtained by: (1) visual observations of selected Earth features, (2) hand-held camera photography to document observations, and (3) stereo mapping photography of areas of significant scientific interest.
Forty-one digitally correlated Seasat synthetic-aperture radar images of land areas in North America, the Caribbean, and Western Europe are presented to demonstrate this microwave orbital imagery. The characteristics of the radar images, the types of information that can be extracted from them, and certain of their inherent distortions are briefly described. Each atlas scene covers an area of 90 X 90 kilometers, with the exception of the one that is the Nation's Capital. The scenes are grouped according to salient features of geology, hydrology and water resources, urban landcover, or agriculture. Each radar image is accompanied by a corresponding image in the optical or near-infrared range, or by a simple sketch map to illustrate features of interest. Characteristics of the Seasat radar imaging system are outlined.
The Shuttle Imaging Radar-C (SIR-C) mission will yield new and advanced scientific studies of the Earth. SIR-C will be the first instrument to simultaneously acquire images at L-band and C-band with HH, VV, HV, or VH polarizations, as well as images of the phase difference between HH and VV polarizations. These data will be digitally encoded and recorded using onboard high-density digital tape recorders and will later be digitally processed into images using the JPL Advanced Digital SAR Processor. SIR-C geologic studies include cold-region geomorphology, fluvial geomorphology, rock weathering and erosional processes, tectonics and geologic boundaries, geobotany, and radar stereogrammetry. Hydrology investigations cover arid, humid, wetland, snow-covered, and high-latitude regions. Additionally, SIR-C will provide the data to identify and map vegetation types, interpret landscape patterns and processes, assess the biophysical properties of plant canopies, and determine the degree of radar penetration of plant canopies. In oceanography, SIR-C will provide the information necessary to: forecast ocean directional wave spectra; better understand internal wave-current interactions; study the relationship of ocean-bottom features to surface expressions and the correlation of wind signatures to radar backscatter; and detect current-system boundaries, oceanic fronts, and mesoscale eddies. And, as the first spaceborne SAR with multi-frequency, multipolarization imaging capabilities, whole new areas of glaciology will be opened for study when SIR-C is flown in a polar orbit.
The primary objective of the SIR-B experiment was to acquire multiple-incidence-angle radar imagery of a variety of Earth's surfaces to better understand the effects of imaging geometry on radar backscatter. A complementary objective was to map extensive regions of particular interest. Under these broad objectives, many specific scientific experiments were defined by the 43 SIR-B Science Team members, including studies in the area of geology, vegetation, radar penetration, oceanography, image analysis, and calibration technique development. Approximately 20 percent of the planned digital data were collected, meeting 40 percent of the scientific objectives. This report is an overview of the SIR-B experiment and includes the science investigations, hardware design, mission scenario, mission operations, events of the actual missions, astronaut participation, data products (including auxiliary data), calibrations, and a summary of the actual coverage. Also included are several image samples.
The Thematic Conference series was initiated to address the need for concentrated discussion of particular remote sensing applications. The program is primarily concerned with the application of remote sensing to mineral and hydrocarbon exploration, with special emphasis on data integration, methodologies, and practical solutions for geologists. Some fifty invited papers are scheduled for eleven plenary sessions, formulated to address such important topics as basement tectonics and their surface expressions, spectral geology, applications for hydrocarbon exploration, and radar applications and future systems. Other invited presentations will discuss geobotanical remote sensing, mineral exploration, engineering and environmental applications, advanced image processing, and integration and mapping.
Near-Earth asteroids are important exploration targets since they provide clues to the evolution of the solar system. They are also of interest since they present a clear danger to Earth. Our mission objective is to image the internal structure of two NEOs using radio reflection tomography (RRT) in order to explore the record of asteroid origin and impact evolution, and to test the fundamental hypothesis that some NEOs are rubble piles rather than consolidated bodies. Our mission s RRT technique is analogous to doing a CAT scan of the asteroid from orbit. Closely sampled radar echoes are processed to yield volumetric maps of mechanical and compositional boundaries, and to measure interior material dielectric properties. The RRT instrument is a radar that operates at 5 and 15 MHz with two 30-m (tip-to-tip) dipole antennas that are used in a cross-dipole configuration. The radar transmitter and receiver electronics have heritage from JPL's MARSIS contribution to Mars Express, and the antenna is similar to systems used in IMAGE and LACE missions. The 5-MHz channel is designed to penetrate greater than 1 km of basaltic rock, and 15-MHz penetrates a few hundred meters or more. In addition to RRT volumetric imaging, we use redundant color cameras to explore the surface expressions of unit boundaries, in order to relate interior radar imaging to what is observable from spacecraft imaging and from Earth. The camera also yields stereo color imaging for geology and RRT-related compositional analysis. Gravity and high fidelity geodesy are used to explore how interior structure is expressed in shape, density, mass distribution and spin. Ion thruster propulsion is utilized by Deep Interior to enable tomographic radar mapping of multiple asteroids. Within the Discovery AO scheduling parameters we identify two targets, S-type 1999 ND43 (approximately 500 m diameter) and V-type 3908 Nyx (approximately 1 km), asteroids whose compositions bracket the diversity of solar system materials that we are likely to encounter, from undifferentiated to highly evolved. The 5-15 MHz radar is capable of probing more primitive bodies (e.g. comets or C-types) that may be available given other launch schedules. 5 MHz radar easily penetrates, with the required SNR , greater than 1 km of basalt (a good analog for Nyx). Basalt has a greater loss tangent than expected for most asteroids, although iron-rich M-types are probably not appropriate targets. 15 MHz radar penetrates the outer approximately 100 m of rocky 1 km asteroids and the deep interiors of comets. Laboratory studies of the most common NE0 materials expected (S-, C- and V-type meteorite analogs) will commence in 2005.
Constraints on marine phosphate availability and cycling directly inform our understanding of long-term biological evolution. However, early Earth phosphate records are sparse, biased toward siliciclastic samples, and susceptible to post-depositional modification. Well-preserved shallow marine inorganic carbonate precipitates provide a complementary yet understudied record of phosphate cycling. We combined micro-X ray fluorescence mapping, X-ray absorption, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy on samples of Precambrian syndepositional herringbone calcite (HBC) and microspar to characterize phosphorus speciation and distribution in these carbonate fabrics. Phosphorus spectroscopy from synthetic calcite, HBC, and microspar, is qualitatively consistent with a disordered distribution of phosphate. These characteristics are diagnostic of calcite-hosted phosphate, which is pervasive at low concentrations in HBC and microspar. This study provides evidence that ancient, well-preserved carbonate fabrics retain phosphate sourced from seawater and highlights the potential for an unaltered archive of marine phosphate concentration over geologic time.
New topographic data allow a reassessment of the ring structure and distribution of facies of the Serenitatis basin (SB) and correlation with the younger and essentially same-size Orientale basin. Three major rings of the main (southern) SB are mapped: the Linne ring, outlined by mare ridges, average diameter 420 km; the Haemus ring, outlined by basin-facing scarps and massifs with crenulated borders, 610 km; and the Vitruvius ring, outlined by basin-facing linear scarps and massifs, 880 km. The second ring is interpreted as the rim of the transient cavity, while Serenitatis ejecta should be present in significant amounts at the junction of the Serenitatis and Imbrium third rings. The new reconstruction indicates that portions of the SB are better preserved than previously thought, consistent with recent stratigraphic and sample studies that suggest an age (as young as 3.87 plus or minus 0.04 b.y.) for SB which is older than, but close to, the time of formation of the Imbrium basin.
Current limitations in the quantitative interpretation of satellite-elevation geopotential field data and magnetic anomaly data were investigated along with techniques to overcome them. A major result was the preparation of an improved scalar magnetic anomaly map of South America and adjacent marine areas directly from the original MAGSAT data. In addition, comparisons of South American and Euro-African data show a strong correlation of anomalies along the Atlantic rifted margins of the continents.
The Illinois Storage Corridor project will drill a test well in Ford County, IL, near the One Earth Energy facility in Gibson City, IL. Lithologic, geomechanical, and geophysical data collected from samples testing and an extensive geophysical logging suite will be used to determine the feasibility of the geologic sequestration of 50 million tonnes or more of injected carbon dioxide at this location. The primary target reservoir and caprock to be investigated for the Illinois Storage Corridor project are the Mt. Simon Sandstone and Eau Claire Formation, respectively, which together constitute a storage complex that has already been successfully used for natural gas storage in east-central Illinois and for geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide in south-central Illinois. The Lower Mt. Simon, which includes a high- porosity and -permeability arkosic layer, is being targeted as the primary storage zone. Regional maps of this unit indicate that the Lower Mt. Simon is expected to have excellent reservoir characteristics and high net thickness at the drill site.
Results of mapping of rock types from the White Sands, New Mexico area using digital tape data from the Skylab S-192 multispectral scanner are presented. Spectral recognition techniques were used to process the geological data and signatures were extracted from the training sets using a set of promising ratio features defined by analysis of ERSIS (Earth Resources Spectral Information System). An analysis of ERSIS spectra of rock types yielded 24 promising spectral channel ratio features for separating the rock types into precambrian, calcareous, and clay materials and those containing ferric iron.
Initial data screening, data handling and program testing were completed on the four-band Detroit scene and the seven-band northeast Arkansas scene. Data were received in early December for one primary eastern test site (Washington, D.C.) and one secondary eastern test site (Allegheny National Forest). A comprehensive digital data base was built for a portion of the Black Hills test site and is composed of historic LANDSAT MSS data; elevation, slope, and aspect data; land cover data; geologic data; thematic mapper simulator data; and digitized high altitude aircraft data. The thematic mapper and multispectral scanner data of the Washington area were resampled at 25 and 50 meters respectively, with map projection to UTM grid.
In contrast to the POGO and MAGSAT satellites, the Geopotential Research Mission (GRM) satellite system will orbit at a minimum elevation to provide significantly better resolved lithospheric magnetic anomalies for more detailed and improved geologic analysis. In addition, GRM will measure corresponding gravity anomalies to enhance our understanding of the gravity field for vast regions of the Earth which are largely inaccessible to more conventional surface mapping. Crustal studies will greatly benefit from the dual data sets as modeling has shown that lithospheric sources of long-wavelength magnetic anomalies frequently involve density variations which may produce detectable gravity anomalies at satellite elevations. Furthermore, GRM will provide an important replication of lithospheric magnetic anomalies as an aid to identifying and extracting these anomalies from satellite magnetic measurements. The potential benefits to the study of the origin and characterization of the continents and oceans, that may result from the increased GRM resolution are examined.
This bibliography lists 105 terrestrial impact structures, of which 12 are proven structures, that is, structures associated with meteorites, and 93 are probable. Of the 93 probable structures, 18 are known to contain rocks with meteoritic components or to be enriched in meteoritic signature-elements, both of which enhance their probability of having originated by impact. Many of the structures investigated in the USSR to date are subsurface features that are completely or partly buried by sedimentary rocks. At least 16 buried impact structures have already been identified in North America and Europe. No proven nor probable submarine impact structure rising above the ocean floor is presently known; none has been found in Antarctica or Greenland. An attempt has been made to cite for each impact structure all literature published prior to mid-1983. The structures are presented in alphabetical order by continent, and their geographic distribution is indicated on a sketch map of each continent in which they occur. They are also listed tables in: (1) alphabetical order, (2) order of increasing latitude, (3) order of decreasing diameter, and (4) order of increasing geologic age.