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NASA NTRS2009

In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) on the Moon: Moessbauer Spectroscopy as a Process Monitor for Oxygen Production

Essential consumables like oxygen must to be produced from materials on the lunar surface to enable a sustained, long-term presence of humans on the Moon. The Outpost Precursor for ISRU and Modular Architecture (OPTIMA) field test on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, facilitated by the Pacific International Space Center for Exploration Systems (PISCES) of the University of Hawaii at Hilo, was designed to test the implementation of three hardware concepts to extract oxygen from the lunar regolith: Precursor ISRU Lunar Oxygen Testbed (PILOT) developed by Lockheed Martin in Littleton, CO; Regolith & Environmental Science and Oxygen & Lunar Volatiles Extraction (RESOLVE) developed at the NASA Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, FL; and ROxygen developed at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. The three concepts differ in design, but all rely on the same general principle: hydrogen reduction of metal cations (primarily Fe2+) bonded to oxygen to metal (e.g., Fe0) with the production of water. The hydrogen source is residual hydrogen in the fuel tanks of lunar landers. Electrolysis of the water produces oxygen and hydrogen (which is recycled). We used the miniaturized M ssbauer spectrometer MIMOS II to quantify the yield of this process on the basis of the quantity of Fe0 produced. Iron M ssbauer spectroscopy identifies iron-bearing phases, determines iron oxidation states, and quantifies the distribution of iron between mineral phases and oxidation states. The oxygen yield can be calculated by quantitative measurements of the distribution of Fe among oxidation states in the regolith before and after hydrogen reduction. A M ssbauer spectrometer can also be used as a prospecting tool to select the optimum feedstock for the oxygen production plants (e.g., high total Fe content and easily reduced phases). As a demonstration, a MIMOS II backscatter spectrometer (SPESI, Germany) was mounted on the Cratos rover (NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, OH), which is one of several rover concepts designed to excavate and transfer regolith to the stationary hydrogen reduction plants. Spaceflight versions of the MIMOS II are part of the instrument payloads of NASA s Mars Exploration Rovers and still operating five years after landing on the surface of the planet. MIMOS II was also selected for Phobos-Grunt, a Russian sample return mission to the martian moon Phobos scheduled to launch in 2009, and ESA s ExoMars rover, an exobiology mission scheduled to launch in 2013. An advanced version of the instrument is currently under development. A new detector system with a higher energy resolution will not only reduce the necessary measurement time considerably, but also allow the simultaneous acquisition of an X-ray fluorescence spectrum to determine the elemental composition of samples.

Morris, R.V.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Sample Handling and Instruments for the In-Situ Exploration of Ice-Rich Planets

NASA's key science goals for the exploration of the solar system seek a better understanding of the formation and evolutionary processes that have shaped planetary bodies and emphasize the search for habitable environments. Efforts are also made to detect and quantify resources that could be used for the support of human exploration. These themes call for chemistry and physical property observations that may be best approached by in situ measurements. NASA's planetary missions have progressively evolved from remote reconnaissance to in situ exploration with the ultimate goal to return samples. This chapter focuses on the techniques, available or in development, for advanced geophysical and chemical characterization of icy bodies, especially Mars polar areas, Enceladus, Titan, Europa, and Ceres. These astrobiological targets are the objects of recent or ongoing exploration whose findings are driving the formulation of new missions that involve in situ exploration. After reviewing the overall objectives of icy body exploration (Section 9.1) we describe key techniques used for addressing these objectives from surface platforms via geophysical observations (Section 9.2) and chemical measurements (Section 9.3).

planets↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Anhydrous Primary Minerals in Ryugu, Ivuna, and Bennu

Samples returned from asteroid Ryugu are chemically and mineralogically similar to CI chondrites [e.g., 1–3]. Both are predominantly composed of low-temperature aqueously formed secondary minerals, whereas high-temperature anhydrous primary minerals, such as olivine, low-Ca pyroxene, spinel, and hibonite, are rarely present. Using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS; Cameca ims-1280HR at Hokkaido University), we performed O [4] and Al–Mg [5] isotope measurements of anhydrous primary minerals in samples of Ryugu and the Ivuna CI chondrite to constrain their origin.Anhydrous primary minerals in our samples of Ryugu and Ivuna occur mostly as monomineralic isolated grains embedded in hydrated matrix. Their O-isotope compositions are distributed along the slope-1 line on the O three-isotope diagram and range from Δ17O ~ –23 to 0‰. Mg-Al spinel grains are 16O-rich (Δ17O ~ –23‰). Low-Ca pyroxene grains are 16O-poor (Δ17O ~ –5‰). Olivine grains show a bimodal distribution of O-isotope composition:10 of 34 grains measured are 16O-rich (Δ17O ~ –23‰) and 24 grains are 16O-poor (Δ17O ~ –7 to 0‰). We found refractory inclusions composed of Mg-Al spinel and hibonite, one from Ryugu and one from Ivuna. Also, in Ivuna, we found an amoeboid olivine aggregate ( AOA) composed of olivine, diopside, anorthite, and Mg-Al spinel and an inclusion composed of olivine and Mg-Al spinel. The minerals in all of these inclusions are 16O-rich (Δ17O ~ –24‰).The 16O-rich grains and inclusions are mineralogically and O-isotopically similar to calcium-aluminum–rich inclusions (CAIs) and AOAs reported in other carbonaceous chondrites [6, 7]. In addition, the initial 26Al/27Al ratios of the two spinel-hibonite inclusions are inferred as ~4.4 × 10–5, also similar to most CAIs in carbonaceous chondrites [6, 8]. The range of Δ17O values for the 16O-poor olivine and low-Ca pyroxene grains is consistent withthat of these minerals in chondrules in most carbonaceous chondrites [9]. Moreover, the most frequent Δ17O value (–6‰) for Mg-rich (Mg# > 97) olivine grains is identical to those for chondrules. Although CI chondrites and Ryugu samples are devoid of chondrules, the 16O-poor grains most likely represent fragments of chondrule-like objects. The presence of both 16O-poor chondrule-like and 16O-rich refractory inclusion–like minerals in Ryugu and Ivuna suggests that some of their building blocks are similar to those of other carbonaceous chondrite groups. They both probably formed in the inner solar protoplanetary disk and were subsequently transported outward.Preliminary data for petrography of asteroid Bennu samples and chemical and isotopic compositions of theiranhydrous primary minerals will also be presented in the meeting.

N Kawasaki↗

NASA NTRS1992

Asteroid exploration and utilization

The Earth is nearing depletion of its natural resources at a time when human beings are rapidly expanding the frontiers of space. The resources possessed by asteroids have enormous potential for aiding and enhancing human space exploration as well as life on Earth. Project STONER (Systematic Transfer of Near Earth Resources) is based on mining an asteroid and transporting raw materials back to Earth. The asteroid explorer/sample return mission is designed in the context of both scenarios and is the first phase of a long range plan for humans to utilize asteroid resources. Project STONER is divided into two parts: asteroid selection and explorer spacecraft design. The spacecraft design team is responsible for the selection and integration of the subsystems: GNC, communications, automation, propulsion, power, structures, thermal systems, scientific instruments, and mechanisms used on the surface to retrieve and store asteroid regolith. The sample return mission scenario consists of eight primary phases that are critical to the mission.

Radovich, Brian M.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Developement of the Potassium-Argon Laser Experiment (KArLE) for In Situ Geochronology

Absolute dating of planetary samples is an essential tool to establish the chronology of geological events, including crystallization history, magmatic evolution, and alteration. Thus far, radiometric geochronology of planetary samples has only been accomplishable in terrestrial laboratories on samples from dedicated sample return missions and meteorites. In situ instruments to measure rock ages have been proposed, but none have yet reached TRL 6, because isotopic measurements with sufficient resolution are challenging. We have begun work under the NASA Planetary Instrument Definition and Development Program (PIDDP) to develop the Potassium (K) - Argon Laser Experiment (KArLE), a novel combination of several flight-proven components that will enable accurate KAr isochron dating of planetary rocks. KArLE will ablate a rock sample, measure the K in the plasma state using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), measure the liberated Ar using quadrupole mass spectrometry (QMS), and relate the two by measuring the volume of the abated pit using a optical methods such as a vertical scanning interferometer (VSI). Our preliminary work indicates that the KArLE instrument will be capable of determining the age of several kinds of planetary samples to 100 Myr, sufficient to address a wide range of geochronology problems in planetary science. Additional benefits derive from the fact that each KArLE component achieves analyses common to most planetary surface missions.

Cohen, Barbara A.↗

NASA NTRS2023

Space Weathering of Genesis Mission Solar-wind Collectors with Inferences for Weathering on Airless Bodies

Samples from the Genesis Solar Wind Sample Return (NASA Discovery 5) are a unique opportunity to study the initial stages of space weathering, i.e., the physical and chemical effects of solar-wind irradiation. Arrays of collectors containing multiple materials were each exposed to a different solar-wind regime (fast, slow, bulk, or coronal mass ejection) at the L1 point for long durations (years). Materials exposed to the solar wind included metals, semiconductors, and insulators. Although the time of exposure was obviously short relative to samples having extraterrestrial origins, optical properties, surface chemical properties, and matrix structure have changed in many collectors due to exposure to solar wind. The thickness of amorphous zones, where present, appears to correspond with the depth of the peak of the solar-wind H distribution in each regime. Damage from high-energy particles was negligible because the collectors were 700 μm or less in thickness and shielded from the back by the spacecraft. Micrometeorite impacts and sputtering were also negligible because of the short exposure times. Our current results are preliminary: We hope future workers will extend this study both to support Genesis characterization efforts and to further understand space-weathering processes on a geologic timescale.

space weathering↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Meteoritic Carbonates - The Key to Sampling Extraterrestrial Fluids?

Fluid inclusions are naturally occurring mineral features that preserve trapped fluid phases inside a solid phase. These cavities exist as a closed system, recording the environmental conditions present during entrapment – both physical and chemical. As a result, fluid inclusions are great candidates for directly studying past fluid activity on extraterrestrial bodies within the Solar System. On Earth, fluid inclusions are abundant as they occur within numerous host minerals. They are a powerful tool for accurately and directly understanding the driving processes in various geological environments. In contrast, extraterrestrial fluid inclusions have only been positively identified on three separate occasions within host materials ranging from ordinary chondrites to C/B-type asteroid mission return samples. The possibility of directly studying the fluids involved in aqueous alteration and accurately constraining their heliocentric distances drives the hunt for these elusive capsules. Our goals are to locate new fluid inclusion candidates (hereon referred to as candidates) and assess whether fluid inclusions are a common feature within meteoritic carbonates and why they may have eluded detection for so long. We also aim to characterize the host grain’s mineralogical properties and assess the potentially preferential conditions for fluid entrapment on the asteroid parent body.

P A B Krizan↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

In Situ Geochronology for the Next Decade

Geochronology, or determination of absolute ages for geologic events, underpins many inquiries into the formation and evolution of planets and our Solar System. The bombardment chronology inferred from lunar samples has played a significant role in the development of models of early Solar System and extrasolar planet dynamics, as well as the timing of volatile, organic, and siderophile element delivery. Absolute ages of ancient and recent magmatic products provide strong constraints on the dynamics of magma oceans and crustal formation, and the longevity and evolution of interior heat engines and distinct mantle/crustal source regions. Absolute dating also relates habitability markers to the timescale of evolution of life on Earth. The number of geochronologically-significant terrains across the inner Solar System far exceeds our ability to conduct sample return to all of them. Therefore NASA has invested in the development of in situ dating techniques; several such instruments will be TRL 6 by the time of the next Decadal Survey. We formulated a set of medium-class (New Frontiers) mission concepts to three different locations (the Moon, Mars, and Vesta) with a notional payload consisting of the CDEX and KArLE instruments to measure radiometric ages, an imaging spectrometer and optical cameras to provide site geologic context and sample characterization, an ICP-MS to augment sample contextualization, and a sample acquisition and handling system. A Vesta hopper and single-site lunar and Mars landers to advance Solar System chronology fit into the New Frontiers cost cap in our study. Such missions would also enable a broad suite of geologic investigations such as basic geologic characterization, geomorphologic analysis, establishing ground truth for remote sensing analyses, analyses of major, minor, trace, and volatile elements, atmospheric and other long-lived monitoring, organic molecule analyses, and soil and geotechnical properties.

Barbara A Cohen↗

NASA NTRS2003

Toxicological Assessment of the International Space Station Atmosphere with Emphasis on Metox Canister Regeneration

Space-faring crews must have safe breathing air throughout their missions to ensure adequate performance and good health. Toxicological assessment of air quality depends on the standards that define acceptable air quality, measurements of pollutant levels during the flight, and reports from the crew on their in-flight perceptions of air quality. Air samples returned from ISS on flights 8A, UF2, 9A, and 11A were analyzed for trace pollutants. On average, the air during this period of operations was safe for human respiration. However, about 3 hours into the regeneration of 2 Metox canisters in the U.S. airlock on 20 February 2002 the crew reported an intolerable odor that caused them to stop the regeneration, take refuge in the Russian segment, and scrub air in the U.S. segment for 30 hours. Analytical data from grab samples taken during the incident showed that the pollutants released were characteristic of nominal air pollutants, but were present in much higher concentrations. The odors reported by the crew were due to relatively high concentrations of n-butanol, and possibly other pollutants in the mixture. Later data taken during regeneration of Metox canisters that had not been subject to long-term flows showed minimal effects on air quality. Long-term trending data suggest that a disruption in atmospheric mixing between the Service Module and the U.S. Laboratory has occurred and that formaldehyde concentrations are gradually increasing in the U.S. Laboratory. Trending data also show that the releases of octafluoropropane (OFP) have subsided.

James, John T.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Small Particle Glovebox Experiments - Preliminary Results

A substantial portion of the asteroid samples returned by the HAYABUSA2 and OSIRIS-REx missions will consist of small (submm) components (due to the collection of those particles on the asteroid surface and due to the fragmenting of larger, friable material post-collection). In order to minimize the alteration/oxidation of asteroid regolith, the bulk collections will be stored and curated in nitrogen purged gloveboxes. The processing of small particles in an N2 glovebox will present challenges that are different from those experienced during lunar and meteorite sample processing. Particles in this size range are susceptible to unpredictable electrostatic charging that can result in sample loss during processing operations. Methods for the handling of sub-mm particles have been well developed for environments with ambient atmospheric conditions and relative humidity (RH) ranges between 40-70%. In such conditions, a number of factors can be successfully employed to minimize the effects of triboelectric charging, including the use of Po-210 sources that neutralize excess charge and the utilization of conductive manipulation tools and sample substrates. However, relative humidity levels above 40% also contribute significantly to dissipation of triboelectric effects. We had not previously investigated our charge mitigation methods in a completely dry, nitrogen-purged environment, or whether they would be sufficient in enabling the successful processing of sub-mm samples. Current glovebox configurations in use in our lunar and meteorite curation laboratories are optimized for the processing of macroscopic samples and tools; these glovebox designs are likely unsuitable for the processing of collections for which the bulk collection is comprised of sub-mm components. Small particle sample preparation requires the use of an optical magnification instrument – typically a stereo binocular microscope with at least 20x magnification. Current glovebox designs are not optimized for the utilization or integration of stereo microscopes; while many current cabinets include microscope viewports that enable the use of small, externally mounted stereo microscopes, the focusing methods (usually involving the use of a lab jack) lack the fidelity and precision required for small particle manipulation and imaging. Working distances of higher (>50x magnification) objective lenses may preclude the external use of a stereo microscope through a viewport; in order to successfully manipulate and image very small (< 20m) particles, stereo and digital microscope systems that are integrated within the glovebox should be investigated. Finally, ergonomic considerations for small particle work within a glovebox must be considered to minimize risk of injury to sample processors. In order to investigate some of the unknown parameters relating to small particle processing within an N2 glovebox, we conducted preliminary, qualitative experiments utilizing a small lunar cabinet that was originally used for film development.

C. J. Snead↗

NASA NTRS1981

The planetary exploration programme after two decades

The possible future of the United States program of planetary exploration in the next two decades is examined. The scientific goals and strategy for the exploration of the solar system outside of the earth-moon system are outlined, and the increasing cost effectiveness (per bit of data returned) of the first two decades of space exploration is pointed out. Attention is then given to the next two missions which are currently authorized and under development, the Galileo Jupiter orbiter and descent probe mission and the International Solar Polar Mission, and to possible missions for the next two decades, which would require additional thrust capabilities, including cometary missions, the Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar mission, a follow-on solar probe mission, a Saturn-Titan dual probe, and a Mars sample return mission.

James, J. N.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Exobiology and the search for biological signatures on Mars

In preparation for a Mars Rover/Sample return mission, the mission goals and objectives must be identified. One of the most important objectives must address exobiology and the question of the possibility of the origin and evolution of life on Mars. In particular, key signatures or bio-markers of a possible extinct Martian biota must be defined. To that end geographic locations (sites) that are likely to contain traces of past life must also be identified. Sites and experiments are being defined in support of a Mars rover sample return mission. In addition, analyses based on computer models of abiotic processes of CO2 loss from Mars suggest that the CO2 from the atmosphere may have precipitated as carbonates and be buried within the Martian regolith. The carbon cycle of perennially frozen lakes in the dry valley of Antarctica are currently being investigated. These lakes were purported to be a model system for the ancient Martian lakes. By understanding the dynamic balance between the abiotic vs. biotic cycling of carbon within this system, information is gathered which will enable the interpretation of data obtained by a Mars rover with respect to possible carbonate deposits and the processing of carbon by biological systems. These ancient carbonate deposits, and other sedimentary units would contain traces of biological signatures that would hold the key to understanding the origin and evolution of life on Mars, as well as Earth.

Mancinelli, Rocco L.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Community Supported Stardust Compendia

The Stardust cometary and interstellar collections present unprecedented challenges in sample preparation and analysis. The ensemble of approx.80 tracks and dozens of foil craters from the cometary collection for which we have analyses exhibits a bewildering complexity and diversity of materials. The interstellar collection is even more challenging, because of the extremely low fluence of interstellar dust, a relatively large background of secondary ejecta from impacts on the spacecraft, and the small size of interstellar dust, approximately three orders of magnitude smaller in mass than typical cometary particles. Unlike with the other returned sample collections, characterization of these samples beyond basic photo-documentation is not generally practical at JSC. Even among the other small-particle collections, currently the cosmic dust and Hayabusa samples, SEM/EDX can provide basic chemistry. This is not possible with Stardust particles without destructive and invasive sample preparation. Furthermore, SEM/EDX requires isolating small grains from adhering aerogel. A reliable technique to carry out this task does not exist. Complete characterization of particles requires coordinated analyses using synchrotron and electron-beam microprobes, which do not exist at any one lab. Thus, it was recognized since the Stardust Preliminary Examination in 2006 that characterization of the samples would rely on the worldwide community of Stardust Investigators. Here we announce the development of community-editable, wiki-style Stardust compendia that will support this effort. Our intention is that this will facilitate sample requests by providing basic characterization of tracks. We expect that this will also support comprehensive meta-analyses (global syntheses of analyses) of the collections.

Westphal, Andrew J.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Extraterrestrial Amino Acids in the C2 Ungrouped Carbonaceous Chondrite Tarda: A Unique Distribution

Introduction: Meteorites provide a record of the chemical processes that occurred in the early solar sys-tem. The delivery of organic matter by carbonaceous chondrites to the early Earth could have been an im-portant source of amino acids and other prebiotic or-ganic molecules required for the emergence of life [1]. To date, 96 amino acids have been named in meteor-ites, most of which are rare or absent in the biosphere [2]. The variability in amino acid concentrations and isomer distributions measured in carbonaceous chon-drites can be explained by differences in parent body chemistry and alteration conditions [3]. In addition, aqueous alteration was likely important in the amplifi-cation of some left-handed amino acids over their right-handed forms (L-excesses up to ~60%) in the Tagish Lake meteorite [3], suggesting that the origin of life on Earth and possibly elsewhere in the solar sys-tem was biased towards L-amino acids. On August 25, 2020, a fireball was witnessed in southern Morocco and the first pieces of the meteorite fall were recovered the following day near the town of Tarda [4]. Thousands of individual fragments were recovered from the strewn field totaling ~4 kg [4]. Based on petrographic observations, bulk mineralogy, and chemical and O-isotopic analyses, Tarda has been classified as a C2 ungrouped carbonaceous chondrite with similarities to Tagish Lake (though more primi-tive), as well as CI, CY, and CR chondrites [4,5]. The fall and rapid recovery of the Tarda stones provide an important opportunity to investigate a C-rich meteorite using the state-of-the-art techniques that will also be used to study the samples returned from asteroids Ryugu and Bennu by the Hayabusa2 and OSIRIS-REx missions, respectively. Here, we report the first amino acid analyses of the Tarda meteorite. The total concentrations, enantio-meric ratios and relative distributions of amino acids were determined using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography with UV fluorescence and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-FD/ToF-MS) at NASA GSFC. This analytical technique was employed on extracts from two different pre-rain Tarda meteorite fragments and a sample of sand collected from the Tarda fall site for the purpose of assessing potential terrestrial contamination. Bulk H, C, and N elemental and isotopic analyses were also conducted at the Car-negie Institution for Science (CIS) to assist with petro-logic type classification using elemental analysis iso-tope ratio mass spectrometry (EA-IRMS).

D P Glavin↗

NASA NTRS1988

Volcanic rocks and the geologic history of Mars

A number of questions exist regarding the geology of Mars which can be addressed by the proposed Mars rover-sample return mission. The use of a rover during the proposed mission greatly enhances the ability to investigate multiple aspects of Martian geology and geological history. Attempting to address all of the important questions may dilute the amount of information that can be obtained regarding each question and may result in no satisfactory answers. Prioritization is essential to a successful mission. The task of setting priorities is simplified somewhat when it is considered that answers to some of these questions do not require taking samples, and that for some questions, sample location is not as important as for others. The surface of Mars presents two distinct terrains, both of which have the potential to contain valuable information regarding the composition of Mars.

Salpas, P. A.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Hydrogen Peroxide as a Method for Bioburden Reduction in Facilities with Strict Materials Requirements.

The cleanrooms used to curate NASA’s Astromaterials samples are carefully monitored for particulate and inorganic contamination. The clean labs also have a very limited set of acceptable materials and cleaning agents to further minimize the potential for contamination. Labs are cleaned primarily with isopropyl alcohol. Astromaterials samples are handled with tools made of stainless steel (304 or 316), Teflon, or aluminum alloy (6061). Although our current collections are not particularly susceptible to biological alteration or organic contamination, this will not be the case for new collections from the OSIRIS-REx mission, Hayabusa2, and from Mars Sample Return. Therefore, it is necessary to develop and test methods to reduce the bioburden in astromaterials cleanrooms without introducing unwanted contaminants. We will report on the results of three case studies where 7.5 wt% hydrogen peroxide was prepared from a stock solution of ultrapure 30 wt% hydrogen peroxide (JT Baker) using curation-grade ultrapure water. We followed CDC (Center for Disease Control) guidelines for using hydrogen peroxide as a high level disinfectant. This solution was used to clean a glovebox prior to processing Apollo samples, as well as surfaces in the Antarctic meteorite processing lab and Stardust lab after facilities monitoring indicated an unwanted increase in bioburden. In all three instances, the culturable bioburden was significantly reduced after a 30 min. exposure to the 7.5% hydrogen peroxide solution without a corresponding increase in inorganic or organic contamination. We observed 77 to 100% reductions in the bioburden recovery rate. In one case study, we also performed amplicon DNA sequencing on samples collected from the surfaces before and after cleaning. We observed a significant change in microbial community composition after peroxide cleaning. These results suggest that routine cleaning with hydrogen peroxide could be an effective way to control bioburden in astromaterials cleanrooms and other facilities with strict contamination control requirements.

A B Regberg↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Hydrogen Peroxide as a Method for Bioburden Reduction in Facilities with Strict Materials Requirements

A B Regberg↗

NASA NTRS2003

Future Mission Proposal Opportunities: Discovery, New Frontiers, and Project Prometheus

The NASA Office of Space Science is expanding opportunities to propose missions to comets, asteroids, and other solar system targets. The Discovery Program continues to be popular, with two sample return missions, Stardust and Genesis, currently in operation. The New Frontiers Program, a new proposal opportunity modeled on the successful Discovery Program, begins this year with the release of its first Announcement of Opportunity. Project Prometheus, a program to develop nuclear electric power and propulsion technology intended to enable a new class of high-power, high-capability investigations, is a third opportunity to propose solar system exploration. All three classes of mission include a commitment to provide data to the Planetary Data System, any samples to the NASA Curatorial Facility at Johnson Space Center, and programs for education and public outreach.

Niebur, S. M.↗