Radio Astronomy from the Moon
A discussion on the science from upcoming NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) missions to the lunar surface with low frequency (<100 kHz) astronomy instruments.
CLPS↗
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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.
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Lunar Flashlight: Illuminating the Lunar South Pole
Recent reflectance data from LRO instruments suggest water ice and other volatiles may be present on the surface in lunar permanentlyshadowed regions, though the detection is not yet definitive. Understanding the composition, quantity, distribution, and form of water and other volatiles associated with lunar permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) is identified as a NASA Strategic Knowledge Gap (SKG) for Human Exploration. These polar volatile deposits are also scientifically interesting, having the potential to reveal important information about the delivery of water to the Earth- Moon system.
South Pole↗
Improved Lunar Irradiance Model Using Multiyear MODIS Lunar Observations
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments on board the Terra and Aqua spacecrafts were launched on December 18, 1999, and May 4, 2002, respectively. One of the features of the MODIS instruments is the ability to perform observations of the lunar surface from its space view (SV) port. This event is scheduled approximately once a month via a spacecraft roll maneuver, which enables the lunar phase to be confined to within 1° for each instrument. The Moon is considered to be an extremely stable reference to monitor the long-term radiometric stability of the reflective solar bands (RSB). Each MODIS instrument can also view the Moon for about four months in a year without a roll maneuver. This is caused by the intrusion of the Moon in the SV. The lunar phase angles of these unscheduled lunar observations are distributed over a wide range varying from approximately 50° to 80° for Terra MODIS and from about -80° to -50° for Aqua MODIS, where the positive phase angle refers to a waning Moon, while the negative phase angle corresponds to a waxing Moon. Together, the scheduled and unscheduled lunar observations are used to monitor the long-term radiometric stability of the RSB. Of the several challenges involved in the modeling of the lunar optical properties, such as its absolute brightness, a number of optical and view geometry effects need to be considered. These effects are much easier to characterize for the scheduled observations due to confinement of the lunar phase angles compared to those for the unscheduled intrusions of the Moon in the SV. Nevertheless, it is still a challenge to remove the view geometry effect in the calibration coefficients derived from the scheduled lunar observations and even more challenging for the unscheduled lunar intrusions. In this work, the lunar absolute irradiance is modeled using known attributes and from the lunar observations by the two MODIS instruments from the time period between the years 2005 and 2012.
Calibration↗
Infrastructure for deployment of power systems
A preliminary effort in characterizing the types of stationary lunar power systems which may be considered for emplacement on the lunar surface from the proposed initial 100-kW unit in 2003 to later units ranging in power from 25 to 825 kW is presented. Associated with these power systems are their related infrastructure hardware including: (1) electrical cable, wiring, switchgear, and converters; (2) deployable radiator panels; (3) deployable photovoltaic (PV) panels; (4) heat transfer fluid piping and connection joints; (5) power system instrumentation and control equipment; and (6) interface hardware between lunar surface construction/maintenance equipment and power system. This report: (1) presents estimates of the mass and volumes associated with these power systems and their related infrastructure hardware; (2) provides task breakdown description for emplacing this equipment; (3) gives estimated heat, forces, torques, and alignment tolerances for equipment assembly; and (4) provides other important equipment/machinery requirements where applicable. Packaging options for this equipment will be discussed along with necessary site preparation requirements. Design and analysis issues associated with the final emplacement of this power system hardware are also described.
Sprouse, Kenneth M.↗
Lightweight Modular Instrumentation for Planetary Applications
An instrumentation, called Space Active Modular Materials ExperimentS (SAMMES), is developed for monitoring the spacecraft environment and for accurately measuring the degradation of space materials in low earth orbit (LEO). The SAMMES architecture concept can be extended to instrumentation for planetary exploration, both on spacecraft and in situ. The operating environment for planetary application will be substantially different, with temperature extremes and harsh solar wind and cosmic ray flux on lunar surfaces and temperature extremes and high winds on venusian and Martian surfaces. Moreover, instruments for surface deployment, which will be packaged in a small lander/rover (as in MESUR, for example), must be extremely compact with ultralow power and weight. With these requirements in mind, the SAMMES concept was extended to a sensor/instrumentation scheme for the lunar and Martian surface environment.
Joshi, P. B.↗
Electrostatic Charging of the Lunar Surface
Lunar regolith dust particles accumulate charge and interact electrostatically with rover wheels, astronaut boots, and equipment. We have developed instrumentation for in situ measurements of the electrostatic charge developed by the interactions of lunar regolith dust with the space-rated materials on these devices. This instrument is also capable of measuring the distribution of electric fields on or near the lunar surface and the ion currents present near the lunar surface. We also report on our efforts to characterize the charging behavior of lunar dust in low gravity environments. This behavior is nonintuitive due to complex interactions between individual dust grains. We are developing an experiment to study this interaction in a microgravity vacuum environment. Better understanding of this interaction will allow for improved dust mitigation on the lunar surface.
electrostatics↗
Cold cathode gauge experiment (ALSEP)
Cold cathode ionization gages were left on the lunar surface as part of ALSEP (Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package) on Apollo missions 12, 14, and 15. An instrument prepared for Apollo 13 did not reach the surface because of the abort of that mission. The gages that reached the lunar surface measured the amounts of gas present in the vicinity of the ALSEP sites. The observed daytime gas concentrations were initially about two orders of magnitude greater than the nighttime observations; this was due to contamination of the landing area by the Apollo operations and equipment, and the daytime measurements showed a decrease with time characterized by a time constant of a few months.
Johnson, F. S.↗
Resource Prospector Instrumentation for Lunar Volatiles Prospecting, Sample Acquisition and Processing
Data gathered from lunar missions within the last two decades have significantly enhanced our understanding of the volatile resources available on the lunar surface, specifically focusing on the polar regions. Several orbiting missions such as Clementine and Lunar Prospector have suggested the presence of volatile ices and enhanced hydrogen concentrations in the permanently shadowed regions of the moon. The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission was the first to provide direct measurement of water ice in a permanently shadowed region. These missions with other orbiting assets have laid the groundwork for the next step in the exploration of the lunar surface; providing ground truth data of the volatiles by mapping the distribution and processing lunar regolith for resource extraction. This next step is the robotic mission Resource Prospector (RP). Resource Prospector is a lunar mission to investigate 'strategic knowledge gaps' (SKGs) for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). The mission is proposed to land in the lunar south pole near a permanently shadowed crater. The landing site will be determined by the science team with input from broader international community as being near traversable landscape that has a high potential of containing elevated concentrations of volatiles such as water while maximizing mission duration. A rover will host the Regolith & Environment Science and Oxygen & Lunar Volatile Extraction (RESOLVE) payload for resource mapping and processing. The science instruments on the payload include a 1-meter drill, neutron spectrometer, a near infrared spectrometer, an operations camera, and a reactor with a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer for volatile analysis. After the RP lander safely delivers the rover to the lunar surface, the science team will guide the rover team on the first traverse plan. The neutron spectrometer (NS) and near infrared (NIR) spectrometer instruments will be used as prospecting tools to guide the traverse path. The NS will map the water-equivalent hydrogen concentration as low as 0.5% by weight to an 80 centimeter depth as the rover traverses the lunar landscape. The NIR spectrometer will measure surficial H2O/OH as well as general mineralogy. When the prospecting instruments identify a potential volatile-rich area during the course of a traverse, the prospect is then mapped out and the most promising location identified. An augering drill capable of sampling to a depth of 100 centimeters will excavate regolith for analysis. A quick assay of the drill cuttings will be made using an operations camera and NIR spectrometer. With the water depth confirmed by this first auguring activity, a regolith sample may be extracted for processing. The drill will deliver the regolith sample to a crucible that will be sealed and heated. Evolved volatiles will be measured by a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer and the water will be captured and photographed. RP is a solar powered mission, which given the polar location translates to a relatively short mission duration on the order of 4-15 days. This short mission duration drives the concept of operations, instrumentation, and data analysis towards critical real time analysis and decision support. Previous payload field tests have increased the fidelity of the hardware, software, and mission operations. Current activities include a mission level field test to optimize interfaces between the payload and rover as well as better understand the interaction of the science and rover teams during the mission timeline. This paper will include the current status of the science instruments on the payload as well as the integrated field test occurring in fall of 2015. The concept of operations will be discussed, including the real time science and engineering decision-making process based on the critical data from the instrumentation. The path to flight will be discussed with the approach to this ambitious low cost mission.
ISRU↗
SILVER: Surface Imaging for Lunar Volatiles, Resources, and Exploration
The Surface Imaging for Lunar Volatiles, Exploration, and Resources (SILVER) instrument is a proposed imaging investigation for the 2008 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) mission. SILVER and its experienced Measurement Team will prepare for and support future lunar human exploration activities, especially landing site identification and certification on the basis of potential resources. SILVER combines a high-resolution pushbroom visible imaging channel (SILVER-HR) and a wide-field-of-view (45 deg) framing imaging channel (SILVER-WF). SILVER-HR will obtain a single-detector 6 km imaging swath of 12,228 pixels at 0.5 m/pixel to image greater than 100 sq km target areas from 50 km altitude, imaging greater than 15% the lunar surface during a 1 year nominal mission. SILVER-HR has excellent stray-light rejection and its imaging detector has selectable time delay integration (TDI) with up to 128 stages for extreme low-light sensitivity, permitting direct imaging of permanently shadowed polar regions in scattered sunlight or earthshine. SILVER-WF will obtain geodetic framing images in a 2048 x 2048 format at 20m/pixel, with 60% along-track overlap stereo for imaging context and for derivation of a global digital elevation model of meter-scale lunar topography.
Pappalardo, R. T.↗
Search and Recovery Efforts for the ALSEP Data Tapes
On NASA's first human lunar landing on Apollo II in July 1969, the astronauts deployed a set of scientific instruments called Early Apollo Science Experiments Package (EASEP). It was powered by a solar panel and operated for -20 earth-days and transmitted data to the Earth. This paved a way for deployment of more expansive instrument packages, powered by radioisotope thermoelectric generators, on Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 in November 1969 through December 1972. They were called Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEPs). Each ALSEP consisted of a variety of instruments such as seismometers, magnetometers, solar wind spectrometers, heat flow probes, etc. The majority of these instruments kept functioning long after their one-year design lifetime requirement, and they transmitted data to the Earth until September 1977, when the program ended. Over the three decades that followed, users of the NSSDC-archived data have learned that many of the ALSEP instrument data are not complete. The present work is a progress report on the authors' recent effort for restoring the entire raw ALSEP data that were received from the Moon,
Nagihara, S.↗
Lunar Flashlight: Illuminating the Moon's South Pole
Recent reflectance data from LRO instruments suggest water ice and other volatiles may be present on the surface in lunar permanently shadowed regions, though the detection is not yet definitive. Understanding the composition, quantity, distribution, and form of water and other volatiles associated with lunar permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) is identified as a NASA Strategic Knowledge Gap (SKG) for Human Exploration. These polar volatile deposits are also scientifically interesting, having the potential to reveal important information about the delivery of water to the Earth-Moon system.
South Pole↗
Lunar observer laser altimeter
Understanding the global topography of the Moon is especially important for answering questions concerning lunar origin and evolution. Many outstanding problems in lunar science can be addressed with high resolution topographic data. The severe power, mass, size, and data-rate limitations imposed by the Lunar Geoscience Observer (LGO) and other Observer-class missions are major challenges for all instruments capable of measuring topography. A radar altimeter that meets these strict requirements could obtain a global prespective of lunar topography with a few kilometers spatial resolution and 10 m vertical resolution from a lunar orbit of 100 km. A prototype model is being constructed of the Lunar Observer Laser Altimeter (LOLA) capable of continuously measuring the range to the lunar surface with sub-meter vertical resolution within a 30 to 300 m diameter surface footprint. This same instrument is also designed to provide a direct measure of the surface height distribution in the footprint by waveform analysis of the backscattered laser pulse. Both these measurements are to be made in a continuous, nadir profile across the lunar surface from a 100 km orbit. The wavelength of the altimeter is 1064 nm. A short-pulse (2 nsec), diode-pumped Nd:YAG laser combined with a 25 cm diameter telescope, silicon avalanche photodiode detector, ranging electronics, and instrument computer was designed to make these measurements and meet all the requirements of the LGO mission.
Bufton, J. L.↗
Nature of and Lessons Learned from Lunar Ice Cube and the First Deep Space Cubesat 'Cluster'
Cubesats operating in deep space face challenges Earth-orbiting cubesats do not. 15 deep space cubesat 'prototypes' will be launched over the next two years including the two MarCO cubesats, the 2018 demonstration of dual communication system at Mars, and the 13 diverse cubesats being deployed from the SLS EM1 mission within the next two years. Three of the EM1 cubesat missions, including the first deep space cubesat 'cluster', will be lunar orbiters with remote sensing instruments for lunar surface/regolith measurements. These include: Lunar Ice Cube, with its 1-4 micron broadband IR spectrometer, BIRCHES, to determine volatile distribution as a function of time of day; Lunar Flashlight, to confirm the presence of surface ice at the lunar poles, utilizing an active source (laser), and looking for absorption features in the returning signal; and LunaH-Map to characterize ice at or below the surface at the poles with a compact neutron spectrometer. In addition, the BIRCHES instrument on Lunar Ice Cube will provide the first demonstration of a microcryocooler (AIM/IRIS) in deep space. Although not originally required to do so, all will be delivering science data to the Planetary Data System, the first formal archiving effort for cubesats. 4 of the 20 recently NASA-sponsored (PSDS3) study groups for deep space cubesat/smallsat mission concepts were lunar mission concepts, most involving 12U cubesats. NASA SIMPLEX 2/SALMON 3 AO will create ongoing opportunities for low-cost missions as 'rides' on government space program or private sector vehicles as these become available.
Ice Cube↗
Nature of and Lessons Learned from Lunar Ice Cube and the First Deep Space Cubesat 'Cluster'
Cubesats operating in deep space face challenges Earth-orbiting cubesats do not. 15 deep space cubesat 'prototypes' will be launched over the next two years including the two MarCO cubesats, the 2018 demonstration of dual communication system at Mars, and the 13 diverse cubesats being deployed from the SLS EM1 mission within the next two years. Three of the EM1 cubesat missions, including the first deep space cubesat 'cluster', will be lunar orbiters with remote sensing instruments for lunar surface/regolith measurements. These include: Lunar Ice Cube, with its 1-4 micron broadband IR spectrometer, BIRCHES, to determine volatile distribution as a function of time of day; Lunar Flashlight, to confirm the presence of surface ice at the lunar poles, utilizing an active source (laser), and looking for absorption features in the returning signal; and LunaH-Map to characterize ice at or below the surface at the poles with a compact neutron spectrometer. In addition, the BIRCHES instrument on Lunar Ice Cube will provide the first demonstration of a microcryocooler (AIM/IRIS) in deep space. Although not originally required to do so, all will be delivering science data to the Planetary Data System, the first formal archiving effort for cubesats. 4 of the 20 recently NASA-sponsored (PSDS3) study groups for deep space cubesat/smallsat mission concepts were lunar mission concepts, most involving 12U cubesats. NASA SIMPLEX 2/SALMON 3 AO will create ongoing opportunities for low-cost missions as 'rides' on government space program or private sector vehicles as these become available.
Bujold, Emily↗
Lunar Observer Laser Altimeter observations for lunar base site selection
One of the critical datasets for optimal selection of future lunar landing sites is local- to regional-scale topography. Lunar base site selection will require such data for both engineering and scientific operations purposes. The Lunar Geoscience Orbiter or Lunar Observer is the ideal precursory science mission from which to obtain this required information. We suggest that a simple laser altimeter instrument could be employed to measure local-scale slopes, heights, and depths of lunar surface features important to lunar base planning and design. For this reason, we have designed and are currently constructing a breadboard of a Lunar Observer Laser Altimeter (LOLA) instrument capable of acquiring contiguous-footprint topographic profiles with both 30-m and 300-m along-track resolution. This instrument meets all the severe weight, power, size, and data rate limitations imposed by Observer-class spacecraft. In addition, LOLA would be capable of measuring the within-footprint vertical roughness of the lunar surface, and the 1.06-micron relative surface reflectivity at normal incidence. We have used airborne laser altimeter data for a few representative lunar analog landforms to simulate and analyze LOLA performance in a 100-km lunar orbit. We demonstrate that this system in its highest resolution mode (30-m diameter footprints) would quantify the topography of all but the very smallest lunar landforms. At its global mapping resolution (300-m diameter footprints), LOLA would establish the topographic context for lunar landing site selection by providing the basis for constructing a 1-2 km spatial resolution global, geodetic topographic grid that would contain a high density of observations (e.g., approximately 1000 observations per each 1 deg by 1 deg cell at the lunar equator). The high spatial and vertical resolution measurements made with a LOLA-class instrument on a precursory Lunar Observer would be highly synergistic with high-resolution imaging datasets, and will allow for direct quantification of critical slopes, heights, and depths of features visible in images of potential lunar base sites.
Garvin, James B.↗
Preliminary scientific results from Surveyor V News release
Photographic and backscattering instrumental data from Surveyor V soft touchdown on lunar surface on mechanical, magnetic, and chemical properties of surface
BACKSCATTER↗
Aeolian Induced Erosion and Particle Entrainment
The Granular Physics Department at The Kennedy Space Center is addressing the problem of erosion on the lunar surface. The early stages of research required an instrument that would produce erosion at a specific rate with a specific sample variation. This paper focuses on the development and experimental procedures to measure and record erosion rates. This was done with the construction of an open air wind tunnel, and examining the relationship between airflow and particle motion.
Saint, Brandon↗
The Wizard Staff Mobile Tool for Human Exploration on the Lunar Surface
The Wizard Staff is a rechargeable, battery powered mobile tool with multiple uses for lunar surface exploration. It supports human activity as a surface survey tool, provides external illumination to enhance safety, delivers networking, communications, and navigation functions to remote sites, and assists crew rescue with an emergency beacon and rigid splint structure.
Wizard Staff↗