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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Warming, permafrost thaw and increased nitrogen availability as drivers for plant composition and growth across the Tibetan Plateau

Permafrost-affected ecosystems are subject to warming and thawing, which can increase the availability of subsurface nitrogen (N) with consequences in otherwise N-limited tundra and alpine vegetation. Here, we quantify the extent of warming and permafrost thawing and the corresponding effects on nitrogen availability and plant growth based on a 20-year survey across 14 sites on the Tibetan Plateau. The survey showed that most sites have been subject to warming and thawing and that the upper permafrost zone across all sites was rich in inorganic N, mainly as ammonium. We further explore the efficiency of plants to utilize 15 N-labelled inorganic N over five years following 15 N addition at the permafrost table far below the main root zone. The 15 N experiment showed that deep-rooted plant species were able to utilize the labelled N. A SEM model suggests that changes in vegetation can be explained by both active layer warming and permafrost thawing and the associated changes in inorganic nitrogen availability. Our results highlight a feedback mechanism of climate warming, in which released plant-available N may favour deep-rooted plants. This can explain important changes in plant composition and growth across the sites on the Tibetan Plateau.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Identification of synthetic consortia from a set of plant-beneficial bacteria

The use of microbial inoculants in agriculture as biofertilisers and/or biopesticides is an appealing alternative to replace or reduce the practice of agrochemicals. Plant microbiota studies are revealing the different bacterial groups which are populating plant microbiomes re-energising the plant probiotic bacteria (PPB) translational research sector. Some single-microbial strain bioinoculants have proven valid in agriculture (e.g., based on Trichoderma, mycorrhiza or rhizobia); however, it is now recommended to consider multistrain consortia since plant-beneficial effects are often a result of community-level interactions in plant microbiomes. A limiting step is the selection of a fitting combination of microbial strains in order to accomplish the best beneficial effect upon plant inoculation. In this study, we have used a subset of 23 previously identified and characterised rice-beneficial bacterial colonisers to design and test a series of associated experiments aimed to identify potential PPB consortia which are able to co-colonise and induce plant growth promotion. Bacterial strains were co-inoculated in vitro and in planta using several different methods and their co-colonisation and co-persistence monitored. Results include the identification of two 5-strain and one 2-strain consortia which displayed plant growth-promoting features. Future practical applications of microbiome research must include experiments aimed at identifying consortia of bacteria which can be most effective as crop amendments.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Intraspecific variability in root traits and edaphic conditions influence soil microbiomes across 12 switchgrass cultivars

Microbial communities help plants access nutrients and tolerate stress. Some microbiomes are specific to plant genotypes and, therefore, may contribute to intraspecific differences in plant growth and be a promising target for plant breeding. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a potential bioenergy crop with broad variation in yields and environmental responses; recent studies suggest that associations with distinct microbiomes may contribute to variation in cultivar yields. We used a common garden experiment to investigate variation in 12 mature switchgrass cultivar soil microbiomes and, further, to examine how root traits and soil conditions influence microbiome structure. Here, we found that average root diameter varied up to 33% among cultivars and that they associated with distinct soil microbiomes. Cultivar had a larger effect on the soil bacterial than fungal community, but both were strongly influenced by soil properties. Root traits had a weaker effect on microbiome structure, but root length contributed to variation in the fungal community. Unlike the soil communities, the root bacterial communities did not group by cultivar, based on a subset of samples. Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen and the abundance of several dominant bacterial phyla varied between ecotypes, but overall the differences in soil microbiomes were greater among cultivars than between ecotypes. Our findings show that there is not one soil microbiome that applies to all switchgrass cultivars, or even to each ecotype. These subtle but significant differences in root traits, microbial biomass, and the abundance of certain soil bacteria could explain differences in cultivar yields and environmental responses.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Amino Acids Dominate Diffusive Nitrogen Fluxes in Acidic Tussock Tundra

Organic nitrogen (N) is abundant in soils, but early conceptual frameworks considered it nonessential for plant growth. It is now well recognised that plants have the potential to take up organic N. However, it is still unclear whether plants supplement their N requirements by taking up organic N in situ: at what rate is organic N diffusing towards roots and are plants taking it up? In this work, we combined microdialysis with live-root uptake experiments to measure amino acid speciation and diffusion rates towards roots of Eriophorum vaginatum. Amino acid diffusion rates (321 ng N cm -2 h -1 ) were c. 3× higher than those for inorganic N. Positively charged amino acids made up 68% of the N diffusing through soils compared with neutral and negatively charged amino acids. Live-root uptake experiments confirmed that amino acids are taken up by plants (up to 1 µg N g -1 min -1 potential net uptake). Amino acids must be considered when forecasting plant-available N, especially when they dominate the N supply, and when acidity favours proteolysis over net N mineralisation. Determining amino acid production pathways and supply rates will become increasingly important in projecting the extent and consequences of shrub expansion, especially considering the higher C : N ratio of plants relative to soil.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Natural variation in growth and leaf ion homeostasis in response to salinity stress in Panicum hallii

Soil salinity can negatively impact plants growth, development and fitness. Natural plant populations restricted to coastal environments may evolve in response to saline habitats and therefore provide insights into the process of salinity adaptation. We investigated the growth and physiological responses of coastal and inland populations of Panicum hallii to experimental salinity treatments. Coastal genotypes demonstrated less growth reduction and superior ion homeostasis compared to the inland genotypes in response to saline conditions, supporting a hypothesis of local adaptation. We identified several QTL associated with the plasticity of belowground biomass, leaf sodium and potassium content, and their ratio which underscores the genetic variation present in this species for salinity responses. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis in leaf and root tissue revealed tissue specific overexpression of genes including several cation transporters in the coastal genotype. These transporters mediate sodium ion compartmentalization and potassium ion retention and thus suggests that maintenance of ionic homeostasis of the coastal genotypes might be due to the regulation of these ion transporters. These findings contribute to our understanding of the genetics and molecular mechanisms of salinity adaptation in natural populations, and widens the scope for genetic manipulation of these candidate genes to design plants more resilient to climate change.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Does mycorrhizal symbiosis determine the climate niche for Populus as a bioenergy feedstock?

This is the final technical and scientific report for DE-SC0016097, in which we investigated the role of symbiotic fungi in determining the climatic niche of trees. While microbes have long been viewed as agents of disease, recent explorations of the microbiome have led biologists to recognize that beneficial microbes play an equally vital role in maintaining the health of plants and animals. Perhaps the most ubiquitous form of beneficial interaction in terrestrial ecosystems occurs between fungi and plant roots. These fungus-root, or “mycorrhizal”, symbioses involve the reciprocal exchange of plant sugars for soil nutrients obtained by the fungus, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, which are critical for plant growth. It is known that mycorrhizal associations are widespread - occurring in approximately 90% of plant species - and diverse, with single plants able to associate simultaneously with over 100 species of fungi. Despite this, the ecological factors that control large-scale distribution and abundance of mycorrhizal symbioses are still poorly known, making it challenging to predict how mycorrhizal symbioses may change in future climate conditions or how these fungal communities might be manipulated to improve regional agriculture or forestry projects. In this research project we focused on a native North American tree with strong biofuel potential – Populus – to answer fundamental questions about the role of climate, soil environment, and mycorrhizal interactions in determining growth and competition in plant communities. Populus provides a unique opportunity for ecologically relevant experiments because of its widespread distribution across North America and its natural variability in mycorrhizal association types.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

A Rhodopseudomonas strain with a substantially smaller genome retains the core metabolic versatility of its genus

ABSTRACT Rhodopseudomonas are a group of phototrophic microbes with a marked metabolic versatility and flexibility that underpins their potential use in the production of value-added products, bioremediation, and plant growth promotion. Members of this group have an average genome size of about 5.5 Mb, but two closely related strains have genome sizes of about 4.0 Mb. To identify the types of genes missing in a reduced genome strain, we compared strain DSM127 with other Rhodopseudomonas isolates at the genomic and phenotypic levels. We found that DSM127 can grow as well as other members of the Rhodopseudomonas genus and retains most of their metabolic versatility, but it has many fewer genes associated with high-affinity transport of nutrients, iron uptake, nitrogen metabolism, and biodegradation of aromatic compounds. This analysis indicates genes that can be deleted in genome reduction campaigns and suggests that DSM127 could be a favorable choice for biotechnology applications using Rhodopseudomonas or as a strain that can be engineered further to reside in a specialized natural environment. IMPORTANCE Rhodopseudomonas are a cohort of phototrophic bacteria with broad metabolic versatility. Members of this group are present in diverse soil and water environments, and some strains are found associated with plants and have plant growth-promoting activity. Motivated by the idea that it may be possible to design bacteria with reduced genomes that can survive well only in a specific environment or that may be more metabolically efficient, we compared Rhodopseudomonas strains with typical genome sizes of about 5.5 Mb to a strain with a reduced genome size of 4.0 Mb. From this, we concluded that metabolic versatility is part of the identity of the Rhodopseudomonas group, but high-affinity transport genes and genes of apparent redundant function can be dispensed with.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Integrated Biorefinery of Brewer’s Spent Grain for Second-Generation Ethanol, Mycoprotein, and Bioactive Vinasse Production

Brewer’s spent grain (BSG), the main lignocellulosic by-product of the beer industry, represents an abundant yet underutilized resource with high potential for valorization. This study presents an integrated biorefinery approach to convert BSG into second-generation (2G) ethanol, bioactive vinasse for plant growth promotion, and fungal biomass as a potential mycoprotein source. The biomass was first subjected to biological delignification using the white-rot fungus Ganoderma lucidum, after which two valorization routes were explored: (i) evaluation of the fungal biomass as a mycoprotein candidate and (ii) alcoholic fermentation for ethanol production. For the latter, three pretreatment strategies were assessed (diluted sulfuric acid and two deep eutectic solvents (DESs) based on choline chloride combined with either glycerol or lactic acid) followed by a one-pot enzymatic saccharification and fermentation using Kluyveromyces marxianus SLP1. The highest ethanol yield on substrate (YP/S) was achieved with [Ch]Cl:lactic acid pretreatment (0.46 g/g, 89.32% of theoretical). Vinasse, recovered after distillation, was characterized for organic acid content and tested on Solanum lycopersicum seed germination, showing promising biostimulant activity. Overall, this work highlights the potential of BSG as a sustainable feedstock within circular economy models, enabling the production of multiple bio-based products from a single residue.

Ganoderma lucidum↗
DOE OSTI2022

CO 2 supplementation eliminates sugar-rich media requirement for plant propagation using a simple inexpensive temporary immersion photobioreactor

In vitro plant propagation systems such as temporary immersion bioreactors (TIBs) are valuable tools that enable production of disease-free plants with improved traits. However, TIB systems can be expensive, difficult to implement, and prone to contamination due to sugar rich propagation media. Using rapidly growing chicory root cultures to expedite design-build-test cycles, we report here an improved, low-cost version of a previously reported Hydrostatically-driven TIB (Hy-TIB) that facilitates economical use of gas mixtures. Bioreactor improvements include decreased material costs, expanded modes of operation, and a horizontal orientation of a plastic film plant growth chambers that increase propagule light exposure. To take advantage of these improvements, we describe here experiments that evaluate the impacts of elevated CO 2 on propagation of cacao (Theobroma cacao) secondary embryos and nodal cultures of yam (Dioscorea spp.) during both phototrophic and photomixotrophic growth. Our experiments show that elevated CO 2 during plant propagation significantly improved both cacao and yam propagule development and eliminated the need for supplemental sugars in tissue culture growth media. Thus, our improved Hy-TIB shows potential as a simple, low-cost, and scalable propagation platform with cost-effective gas composition control and reduced risk of contamination overgrowth. We provide detailed instructions for assembly of this Hy-TIB design and discuss the implications of its adoption in food-insecure regions of the world.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

A core of cell wall proteins functions in wall integrity responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

Abstract Cell walls surround all plant cells, and their composition and structure are tightly regulated to maintain cellular and organismal homeostasis. In response to wall damage, the cell wall integrity (CWI) system is engaged to ameliorate effects on plant growth. Despite the central role CWI plays in plant development, our current understanding of how this system functions at the molecular level is limited. Here, we investigated the transcriptomes of etiolated seedlings of mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana with defects in three major wall polysaccharides, pectin ( quasimodo2 ), cellulose ( cellulose synthase3 je5 ), and xyloglucan ( xyloglucan xylosyltransferase1 and 2 ), to probe whether changes in the expression of cell wall‐related genes occur and are similar or different when specific wall components are reduced or missing. Many changes occurred in the transcriptomes of pectin‐ and cellulose‐deficient plants, but fewer changes occurred in the transcriptomes of xyloglucan‐deficient plants. We hypothesize that this might be because pectins interact with other wall components and/or integrity sensors, whereas cellulose forms a major load‐bearing component of the wall; defects in either appear to trigger the expression of structural proteins to maintain wall cohesion in the absence of a major polysaccharide. This core set of genes functioning in CWI in plants represents an attractive target for future genetic engineering of robust and resilient cell walls.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Bacterial Community Members Increase Bacillus subtilis Maintenance on the Roots of Arabidopsis thaliana

Plant-growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) are used to improve plant health and promote crop production. However, because some PGPB (including Bacillus subtilis) do not maintain substantial colonization on plant roots over time, it is unclear how effective PGPB are throughout the plant growing cycle. A better understanding of the dynamics of plant root community assembly is needed to develop and harness the potential of PGPB. Although B. subtilis is often a member of the root microbiome, it does not efficiently monoassociate with plant roots. We hypothesized that B. subtilis may require other primary colonizers to efficiently associate with plant roots. We utilized a previously designed hydroponic system to add bacteria to Arabidopsis thaliana roots and monitor their attachment over time. We inoculated seedlings with B. subtilis and individual bacterial isolates from the native A. thaliana root microbiome either alone or together. We then measured how the coinoculum affected the ability of B. subtilis to colonize and maintain on A. thaliana roots. We screened 96 fully genome-sequenced strains and identified five bacterial strains that were able to significantly improve the maintenance of B. subtilis. Three of these rhizobacteria also increased the maintenance of two strains of B. amyloliquefaciens commonly used in commercially available bioadditives. These results not only illustrate the utility of this model system to address questions about plant–microbe interactions and how other bacteria affect the ability of PGPB to maintain their relationships with plant roots but also may help inform future agricultural interventions to increase crop yields.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Editorial: Phenylpropanoid Systems Biology and Biotechnology

Phenylpropanoids are specialized metabolites involved in several aspects of plant growth and development and in the responses of plants to environmental stimuli. These compounds are synthesized from key intermediates of the shikimate pathway, which are structurally modified by the combined activities of lyases, transferases, ligases, reductases and oxygenases, resulting in the organ- and developmental-specific synthesis and accumulation of diverse metabolites (Vogt, 2010). The phenylpropanoid pathway provides the building blocks for lignin, suberin, and condensed tannins that play a role in structural support and mechanical strength. Lignin is a major contributor to feedstock recalcitrance and negatively affects the conversion of plant biomass into downstream products in biorefineries (Liu et al., 2021). Further, this pathway is key for the production of anthocyanins for organ pigmentation, flavonols and flavones for UV protection, various flavonoids and isoflavonoids for plant-microbe interactions, and antimicrobial phytoalexins for protection against pathogens (Deng and Lu, 2017). In addition to their biological functions in planta, phenylpropanoids are economically important metabolites. They constitute important components in the human diet, acting as nutraceutical compounds with antioxidant, chemopreventive, antimitotic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Several phenylpropanoids are considered high-value biochemicals employed in the production of fragrances, pharmaceuticals and biopolymers (Lin and Eudes, 2020).

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Daylength variation affects growth, photosynthesis, leaf metabolism, partitioning, and metabolic fluxes

Abstract Daylength, a seasonal and latitudinal variable, exerts a substantial impact on plant growth. However, the relationship between daylength and growth is nonproportional, suggesting the existence of adaptive mechanisms. Thus, our study aimed to comprehensively investigate the adaptive strategies employed by plants in response to daylength variation. We grew false flax (Camelina sativa) plants, a model oilseed crop, under long-day (LD) and short-day (SD) conditions and used growth measurements, gas exchange measurements, and isotopic labeling techniques, including 13C, 14C, and 2H2O, to determine responses to different daylengths. Our findings revealed that daylength influences various growth parameters, photosynthetic physiology, carbon partitioning, metabolic fluxes, and metabolite levels. SD plants employed diverse mechanisms to compensate for reduced CO2 fixation in the shorter photoperiod. These mechanisms included enhanced photosynthetic rates and reduced respiration in the light (RL), leading to increased shoot investment. Additionally, SD plants exhibited reduced rates of the glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) shunt and greater partitioning of sugars into starch, thereby sustaining carbon availability during the longer night. Isotopic labeling results further demonstrated substantial alterations in the partitioning of amino acids and TCA cycle intermediates between rapidly and slowly turning over pools. Overall, the results point to multiple developmental, physiological, and metabolic ways in which plants adapt to different daylengths to maintain growth.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Measuring stomatal and guard cell metrics for plant physiology and growth using StoManager1

Abstract Automated guard cell detection and measurement are vital for understanding plant physiological performance and ecological functioning in global water and carbon cycles. Most current methods for measuring guard cells and stomata are laborious, time-consuming, prone to bias, and limited in scale. We developed StoManager1, a high-throughput tool utilizing geometrical, mathematical algorithms, and convolutional neural networks to automatically detect, count, and measure over 30 guard cell and stomatal metrics, including guard cell and stomatal area, length, width, stomatal aperture area/guard cell area, orientation, stomatal evenness, divergence, and aggregation index. Combined with leaf functional traits, some of these StoManager1-measured guard cell and stomatal metrics explained 90% and 82% of tree biomass and intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE) variances in hardwoods, making them substantial factors in leaf physiology and tree growth. StoManager1 demonstrated exceptional precision and recall (mAP@0.5 over 0.96), effectively capturing diverse stomatal properties across over 100 species. StoManager1 facilitates the automation of measuring leaf stomatal and guard cells, enabling broader exploration of stomatal control in plant growth and adaptation to environmental stress and climate change. This has implications for global gross primary productivity (GPP) modeling and estimation, as integrating stomatal metrics can enhance predictions of plant growth and resource usage worldwide. Easily accessible open-source code and standalone Windows executable applications are available on a GitHub repository (https://github.com/JiaxinWang123/StoManager1) and Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7686022).

Wang, Jiaxin (ORCID:0000000348085085)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Non-destructive, whole-plant phenotyping reveals dynamic changes in water use efficiency, photosynthesis, and rhizosphere acidification of sorghum accessions under osmotic stress

Noninvasive phenotyping can quantify dynamic plant growth processes at higher temporal resolution than destructive phenotyping and can reveal phenomena that would be missed by end-point analysis alone. Additionally, whole-plant phenotyping can identify growth conditions that are optimal for both above- and below-ground tissues. However, noninvasive, whole-plant phenotyping approaches available today are generally expensive, complex, and non-modular. We developed a low-cost and versatile approach to noninvasively measure whole-plant physiology over time by growing plants in isolated hydroponic chambers. We demonstrate the versatility of our approach by measuring whole-plant biomass accumulation, water use, and water use efficiency every two days on unstressed and osmotically stressed sorghum accessions. We identified relationships between root zone acidification and photosynthesis on whole-plant water use efficiency over time. Our system can be implemented using cheap, basic components, requires no specific technical expertise, and should be suitable for any non-aquatic vascular plant species.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Moderate high temperature is beneficial or detrimental depending on carbon availability in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

High temperatures impair plant growth and reduce agricultural yields, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. The unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is an excellent model to study heat responses in photosynthetic cells due to its fast growth rate, many similarities in cellular processes to land plants, simple and sequenced genome, and ample genetic and genomics resources. Chlamydomonas grows in light by photosynthesis and with externally supplied acetate as an organic carbon source. Understanding how organic carbon sources affect heat responses is important for the algal industry but remains understudied. We cultivated wild-type Chlamydomonas under highly controlled conditions in photobioreactors at 25 °C (control), 35 °C (moderate high temperature), or 40 °C (acute high temperature) with or without constant acetate supply for 1 or 4 day. Treatment at 35 °C increased algal growth with constant acetate supply but reduced algal growth without sufficient acetate. The overlooked and dynamic effects of 35 °C could be explained by induced acetate uptake and metabolism. Heat treatment at 40 °C for more than 2 day was lethal to algal cultures with or without constant acetate supply. Furthermore, our findings provide insights to understand algal heat responses and help improve thermotolerance in photosynthetic cells.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Novel Membrane-Associated Protein Aids Bacterial Colonization of Maize

The soil environment affected by plant roots and their exudates, termed the rhizosphere, significantly impacts crop health and is an attractive target for engineering desirable agricultural traits. Engineering microbes in the rhizosphere is one approach to improving crop yields that directly minimizes the number of genetic modifications made to plants. Soil microbes have the potential to assist with nutrient acquisition, heat tolerance, and drought response if they can persist in the rhizosphere in the correct numbers. Unfortunately, the mechanisms by which microbes adhere and persist on plant roots are poorly understood, limiting their application. This study examined the membrane proteome shift upon adherence to roots in two bacteria of interest, Klebsiella variicola and Pseudomonas putida. From this surface proteome data, we identified a novel membrane protein from a non-laboratory isolate of P. putida that increases binding to maize roots using unlabeled proteomics. When this protein was moved from the environmental isolate to a common lab strain (P. putida KT2440), we observed increased binding capabilities of P. putida KT2440 to both abiotic mimic surfaces and maize roots. We observed a similar increased binding capability to maize roots when the protein was heterologously expressed in K. variicola and Stutzerimonas stutzeri. With the discovery of this novel binding protein, we outline a strategy for harnessing natural selection and wild isolates to build more persistent strains of bacteria for field applications and plant growth promotion.

rhizosphere, colonization, membrane proteome, plan↗
DOE OSTI2024

Reproducible growth of Brachypodium in EcoFAB 2.0 reveals that nitrogen form and starvation modulate root exudation

Understanding plant-microbe interactions requires examination of root exudation under nutrient stress using standardized and reproducible experimental systems. We grew Brachypodium distachyon hydroponically in fabricated ecosystem devices (EcoFAB 2.0) under three inorganic nitrogen forms (nitrate, ammonium, and ammonium nitrate), followed by nitrogen starvation. Analyses of exudates with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, biomass, medium pH, and nitrogen uptake showed EcoFAB 2.0’s low intratreatment data variability. Furthermore, the three inorganic nitrogen forms caused differential exudation, generalized by abundant amino acids–peptides and alkaloids. Comparatively, nitrogen deficiency decreased nitrogen-containing compounds but increased shikimates-phenylpropanoids. Subsequent bioassays with two shikimates-phenylpropanoids (shikimic and p-coumaric acids) on soil bacteria or Brachypodium seedlings revealed their distinct capacity to regulate both bacterial and plant growth. Our results suggest that (i) Brachypodium alters exudation in response to nitrogen status, which can affect rhizobacterial growth, and (ii) EcoFAB 2.0 is a valuable standardized plant research tool.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗