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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

First evidence of dominant influence of E × B drifts on plasma cooling in an advanced slot divertor for tokamak power exhaust

Addressing power exhaust in tokamaks is presently recognized as one of the major remaining open issues for the development of fusion reactors. At the forefront of this endeavor is the effort to develop an advanced divertor by maximizing dissipation of plasma power and momentum inside the divertor. Here, we demonstrate, for the first time, that the electromagnetic (E × B) drifts exert a key influence on plasma and gas dynamics in a new advanced slot divertor in the DIII-D tokamak, named the small angle slot (SAS). SAS leverages the effect of drifts to achieve a highly dissipative divertor with electron temperature T e ≲ 10 eV over a wide range of plasma densities, for ion B × ∇B away from the divertor, as used for advanced tokamak operation on DIII-D. Modeling with the SOLPS-ITER code shows that for this drift direction, the E × B flow carries particles toward the outer common flux region (CFR) via the private flux region (PFR), reinforcing neutral recycling and enhancing divertor dissipation. In contrast, for the opposite field direction, the E × B flow carries particles away from the outer CFR into the PFR, offsetting the anticipated SAS geometric effects. Furthermore, this finding is an important step in the understanding of the behavior of advanced divertors for achieving a power exhaust solution for fusion reactors.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Highly Recyclable, Mechanically Isotropic and Healable 3D-Printed Elastomers via Polyurea Vitrimers

Delamination of three-dimensional (3D) printed polymer materials by fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a long-standing challenge in additive manufacturing (AM). With numerous efforts devoted to modification of commercially available thermoplastic FDM filaments, developing printing polymeric materials with new chemical design that could intrinsically improve interlayer adhesion, especially combined with other benefits, is in high demand. Herein, we developed a polyurea vitrimer with heat-driven malleability, which is printed to different 3D geometries using FDM. Significantly improved interlayer adhesion was observed by post-annealing the printed samples close to its topology-freezing transition temperature upon which fast associative dynamic covalent bonds exchange reaction occurs. Isotropic mechanical properties were achieved as demonstrated with printed tensile samples with different infill directions. Finally, the printed materials could be fully recycled for five generations with retained mechanical properties. Furthermore, the mechanical performance of the printed sample could also be repaired after damage.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

An overview of various critical aspects of low-cobalt/cobalt-free Li-ion battery cathodes

Cathodes of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) significantly impact the environmental footprint, cost, and energy performance of the battery-pack. Hence, sustainable production of Li-ion battery cathodes is critically required for ensuring cost-effectiveness, environmental benignity, consumer friendliness, and social justice. Battery chemistry largely determines individual cell performance as well as the battery pack cost and life cycle greenhouse gas emission. Continuous manufacturing platforms improve production efficiency in terms of product yield, quality and cost. Spent-battery recycling ensures the circular economy of critical elements that are required for cathode production. Innovations in fast-charging LIBs are particularly promising for sustainable e-mobility with a reduced carbon footprint. This article provides an overview of these research directions, emphasizing strategies for low-cobalt cathode development, recycling processes, continuous production and improvement in fast-charging capability.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Producing Performance-Advantaged Bioplastics

A grand challenge for bio-based plastics is the ability to cost-effectively manufacture high-performance polymers directly from renewable resources that are also recyclable-by-design. A one-step conversion of xylose to polyesters has been reported, combining a sustainable lifecycle with impressive materials performance.

biomass feedstock↗
DOE OSTI2020

Combinatorial Biosynthesis of Sulfated Benzenediol Lactones with a Phenolic Sulfotransferase from Fusarium graminearum PH-1

Total biosynthesis or whole-cell biocatalytic production of sulfated small molecules relies on the discovery and implementation of appropriate sulfotransferase enzymes. Although fungi are prominent biocatalysts and have been used to sulfate drug-like phenolics, no gene encoding a sulfotransferase enzyme has been functionally characterized from these organisms. Here, we identify a phenolic sulfotransferase, FgSULT1, by genome mining from the plant-pathogenic fungus Fusarium graminearum PH-1. We expressed FgSULT1 in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae chassis to modify a broad range of benzenediol lactones and their nonmacrocyclic congeners, together with an anthraquinone, with the resulting unnatural natural product (uNP) sulfates displaying increased solubility. FgSULT1 shares low similarity with known animal and plant sulfotransferases. Instead, it forms a sulfotransferase family with putative bacterial and fungal enzymes for phase II detoxification of xenobiotics and allelochemicals. Among fungi, putative FgSULT1 homologues are encoded in the genomes of Fusarium spp. and a few other genera in nonsyntenic regions, some of which may be related to catabolic sulfur recycling. Computational structure modeling combined with site-directed mutagenesis revealed that FgSULT1 retains the key catalytic residues and the typical fold of characterized animal and plant sulfotransferases. Our work opens the way for the discovery of hitherto unknown fungal sulfotransferases and provides a synthetic biological and enzymatic platform that can be adapted to produce bioactive sulfates, together with sulfate ester standards and probes for masked mycotoxins, precarcinogenic toxins, and xenobiotics.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1999

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

Tropical rainfall affects the lives and economics of a majority of the Earth's population. Tropical rain systems, such as hurricanes, typhoons, and monsoons, are crucial to sustaining the livelihoods of those living in the tropics. Excess rainfall can cause floods and great property and crop damage, whereas too little rainfall can cause drought and crop failure. The latent heat release during the process of precipitation is a major source of energy that drives the atmospheric circulation. This latent heat can intensify weather systems, affecting weather thousands of kilometers away, thus making tropical rainfall an important indicator of atmospheric circulation and short-term climate change. Tropical forests and the underlying soils are major sources of many of the atmosphere's trace constituents. Together, the forests and the atmosphere act as a water-energy regulating system. Most of the rainfall is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration, and the atmospheric trace constituents take part in the recycling process. Hence, the hydrological cycle provides a direct link between tropical rainfall and the global cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur, all important trace materials for the Earth's system. Because rainfall is such an important component in the interactions between the ocean, atmosphere, land, and the biosphere, accurate measurements of rainfall are crucial to understanding the workings of the Earth-atmosphere system. The large spatial and temporal variability of rainfall systems, however, poses a major challenge to estimating global rainfall. So far, there has been a lack of rain gauge networks, especially over the oceans, which points to satellite measurement as the only means by which global observation of rainfall can be made. The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), jointly sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, provides visible, infrared, and microwave observations of tropical and subtropical rain systems.The satellite observations are complemented by ground radar and rain gauge measurements to validate satellite rain estimation techniques. Goddard Space Flight Center's involvement includes the observatory, four instruments, integration and testing of the observatory, data processing and distribution, and satellite operations. TRMM has a design lifetime of three years. Data generated from TRMM and archived at the GDAAC are useful not only for hydrologists, atmospheric scientists, and climatologists, but also for the health community studying infectious diseases, the ocean research community, and the agricultural community.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2008

The Next Giant Leap: NASA's Ares Launch Vehicles Overview

The next chapter in NASA's history also promises to write the next chapter in America's history, as the Agency makes measurable strides toward developing new space transportation capabilities that wi!! put astronauts on course to explore the Moon as the next giant leap toward the first human footprint on Mars. This paper will present top-level plans and progress being made toward fielding the Ares I crew launch vehicle in the 2013 timeframe and the Ares V cargo launch vehicle in the 2018 timeframe. It also gives insight into the objectives for the first test flight, known as the Ares I-X, which is scheduled for April 2009. The U.S. strategy to scientifically explore space will fuel innovations such as solar power and water recycling, as well as yield new knowledge that directly benefits life on Earth. For the Ares launch vehicles, NASA is building on heritage hardware and unique capabilities; as well as almost 50 years of lessons learned from the Apollo Saturn, Space Shuttle, and commercial launch vehicle programs. In the Ares I Project's inaugural year, extensive trade studies and evaluations were conducted to improve upon the designs initially recommended by the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, resulting in significant reduction of near-term and long-range technical and programmatic risks; conceptual designs were analyzed for fitness against requirements; and the contractual framework was assembled to enable a development effort unparalleled in American space flight since the Space Shuttle. The Exploration Launch Projects team completed the Ares I System Requirements Review (SRR) at the end of 2006--the first such engineering milestone for a human-rated space transportation system in over 30 years.

Cook, Stephen A.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Biomimetic Metal-Free Hydride Donor Catalysts for CO 2 Reduction

The catalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to fuels and value-added chemicals is of significance for the development of carbon recycling technologies. One of the main challenges associated with catalytic CO 2 reduction is product selectivity: the formation of carbon monoxide, molecular hydrogen, formate, methanol, and other products occurs with similar thermodynamic driving forces, making it difficult to selectively reduce CO 2 to the target product. Significant scientific effort has been aimed at the development of catalysts that can suppress the undesired hydrogen evolution reaction and direct the reaction toward the selective formation of the desired products, which are easy to handle and store. Inspired by natural photosynthesis, where the CO 2 reduction is achieved using NADPH cofactors in the Calvin cycle, in this study we explore biomimetic metal-free hydride donors as catalysts for the selective reduction of CO 2 to formate. Here, we outline our recent findings on the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters that control the hydride transfer from metal-free hydrides to CO 2 . By experimentally measuring and theoretically calculating the thermodynamic hydricities of a range of metal-free hydride donors, we derive structural and electronic factors that affect their hydride-donating abilities. Two dominant factors that contribute to the stronger hydride donors are identified to be (i) the stabilization of the positive charge formed upon HT via aromatization or by the presence of electron-donating groups and (ii) the destabilization of hydride donors through the anomeric effect or in the presence of significant structural constrains in the hydride molecule. Hydride donors with appropriate thermodynamic hydricities were reacted with CO 2 , and the formation of the formate ion (the first reduction step in CO 2 reduction to methanol) was confirmed experimentally, providing an important proof of principle that organocatalytic CO 2 reduction is feasible. The kinetics of hydride transfer to CO 2 were found to be slow, and the sluggish kinetics were assigned in part to the large self-exchange reorganization energy associated with the organic hydrides in the DMSO solvent. Finally, we outline our approaches to the closure of the catalytic cycle via the electrochemical and photochemical regeneration of the hydride (R–H) from the conjugate hydride acceptors (R + ). We illustrate how proton-coupled electron transfer can be efficiently utilized not only to lower the electrochemical potential at which the hydride regeneration takes place but also to suppress the unwanted dimerization that neutral radical intermediates tend to undergo. Overall, this account provides a summary of important milestones achieved in organocatalytic CO 2 reduction and provides insights into the future research directions needed for the discovery of inexpensive catalysts for carbon recycling.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Economic and environmental feasibility of recycling flexible plastic packaging from single stream collection

As demand for plastic increases, there is an urgent need to ramp up its collection and recycling rate. This study reports results of a pilot study in the United States to recycle flexible plastic packaging (FPP) from single stream curbside collection focusing on both the economic feasibility and carbon footprint. To explore the marketability of recycled FPP, four down-stream market pathways were studied, including roof coverboard, plastic pellets, pallets, and film. In this work, results indicated that (1) the cleaning and pelletizing process at reclaimers contributed the most to the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of recycled FPP products, and (2) the GHG emissions of recycled FPP products in all four pathways are lower than the comparator products. Therefore, using a higher percentage of recycled FPP substituted in a product can result in greater GHG emission reductions. All the recycled FPP products also showed favorable economics compared to their direct competitors.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

Processing behavior evolution of recycled polypropylene: An integrated experimental and Computer-Aided engineering simulation study

Polypropylene (PP) comprises 21% of global plastics production and 18% of plastics waste, yet less than 1% of solid-waste PP is recycled in the United States (U.S.), representing significant environmental and economic challenges. Mechanical recycling, the most prevalent recycling method, subject's materials to thermomechanical stresses, which typically degrade polymer properties, affecting the quality of polymer products. This study replicates the impact of mechanical recycling through multiple extrusion cycles to examine the effects on PP's processing behavior. Dynamic scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements showed stable melting behavior across all processing conditions, while crystallization analysis exhibited consistent shifts in kinetic parameters. Rheological characterization demonstrated progressive viscosity reductions through successive cycles, particularly pronounced at elevated reprocessing temperatures. Here, the integration of this experimental data into injection molding simulations showed that recycled PP maintains viable processing characteristics. Our findings establish quantitative correlations between processing history and material behavior, enabling optimization of processing parameters directly rather than relying on trial-and-error approaches. While these results reflect idealized recycling conditions with minimal contamination, they provide a framework for understanding fundamental property evolution during mechanical recycling.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2021

A biokinetic model for systemic sodium

This paper describes an updated biokinetic model for systemic sodium (Na), developed for use in a series of reports by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) on occupational intake of radionuclides. In contrast to the ICRP's previous model for intake of radio-sodium by workers, the updated model depicts realistic directions of movement of Na in the body including recycling of activity between blood and tissues. The updated model structure facilitates extension of the baseline transfer coefficients for adults to different age groups and to special exposure scenarios such as transfer of radio-sodium from the mother to the foetus or the nursing infant. Dose coefficients for 22Na and 24Na based on the updated model generally do not differ greatly from those based on the ICRP's previous Na model when both models are connected to the ICRP's latest dosimetry system. The main exception is that the updated model yields roughly twofold higher dose coefficients for endosteal bone surface than does the previous model due to the dosimetrically cautious assumption in the updated model that exchangeable Na in bone resides on bone surface.

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Overview of density pedestal structure: Role fueling versus transport

How much of the density pedestal structure profile is determined by fueling versus transport is still a valid question. In most current tokamaks, the Scrape-Off Layer is not opaque enough to screen the neutrals and limit their penetration past the separatrix. As such recycled neutrals as well as additional gas puffing can directly affect the pedestal structure through ionization. Yet, in ITER and other future burning plasma magnetic confinement devices, this ionization source will be pushed further out into the Scrape-Off Layer. This poses the question, how much of the pedestal density structure is governed by this edge ionization source versus plasma transport effects. Theoretically, several turbulent modes have been identified which could provide a 'pinch' like up-gradient transport mechanism. Up-gradient transport is necessary in a source-free region to obtain a peaked density profile, which is often observed in the core of tokamaks. In an opaque Scrape-Off Layer, without the existence of such a pinch, the pedestal density structure would eventually disappear. Not only would this limit our ability to fuel a fusion reactor, it would also affect the pedestal stability. In this paper we will give an overview of the state of the art on what sets the pedestal density structure based on experimental observations as well as theoretical models. We will complement these studies with new results from Alcator C-Mod and DIII-D where the opaqueness is increased to reach values similar to those in ITER.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Can water mined on the moon save cost for life support?

The water needed for space life support has been so far provided by direct supply from Earth on most missions or by recycling on the International Space Station (ISS). With the recent reduction in launch cost, Earth resupply has become more attractive than recycling for lunar missions with smaller crews and briefer missions requiring less than 1,000 crew days. The third alternative supply method would use water mined from the lunar regolith. Continuing lunar research suggests that the moon may have more water, more widely distributed than previously expected. The cost of water mined on the moon will depend on its form and concentration, the machinery and operations required, and the overall demand for water. The use of oxygen and hydrogen for propulsion may greatly exceed the need for crew life support. The conditions under which water mined on the moon would be less expensive that water provided by resupply or recycling are described.

Harry W Jones↗
DOE OSTI2024

Low-cost, high-efficiency III-V photovoltaics enabled by remote epitaxy through graphene (Final Technical Report)

One of the most important outcomes of this project was that the team developed a method to directly grow graphene layer in wafer-scale on III-V substrates. Conventionally, graphene had to be transferred for remote epitaxy, which has imposed significant challenges in scalability, film quality, and substrate recycling, due to the transfer-related issues. The newly developed method of directly forming 2D layers by Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) has realized wafer-scale, defect-free graphene formation for remote epitaxy, which has huge implications not only for solar cells but also in expanding the scalability and the possibility for heterointegration with dissimilar material platforms. Another important outcome was on better understanding of remote epitaxy mechanism. The growth of III-V on graphene is vastly different from directly growing films on III-V substrates, because the surface energy of graphene is very small, meaning that the nucleation density on graphene will be much lower than exposed III-V surfaces. Also, the graphene and the interface properties critically affect remote interaction through graphene. With this obtained knowledge regarding III-V remote epitaxy, we were able to achieve wafer-scale single-crystalline remote epitaxy, 100% exfoliation of the remote epitaxial films, as well as multiple times of GaAs wafer reusability demonstration. The general rule of thumbs found during this project will be a stepping stone for the growth and fabrication of various high-performance devices by remote epitaxy. Lastly, because remote epitaxy and 2DLT offer a pathway to isolate single-crystal membranes from the host wafers, the wafer-scale remote epitaxy processes developed in this project could open up pathways for new functionality and multi-functionality by heterointegration of remote epitaxially formed membranes.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Pultrusion and Vitrimer Composites: Emerging Pathways for Sustainable Structural Materials

Pultrusion is a manufacturing process used to produce fiber-reinforced polymer composites with excellent mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. The resulting materials are lightweight, durable, and corrosion-resistant, making them valuable in aerospace, automotive, construction, and energy sectors. However, conventional thermoset composites remain difficult to recycle due to their infusible and insoluble cross-linked structure. This review explores integrating vitrimer technology a novel class of recyclable thermosets with dynamic covalent adaptive networks into the pultrusion process. As only limited studies have directly reported vitrimer pultrusion to date, this review provides a forward-looking perspective, highlighting fundamental principles, challenges, and opportunities that can guide future development of recyclable high-performance composites. Vitrimers combine the mechanical strength (tensile strength and modulus) of thermosets with the reprocessability and reshaping of thermoplastics through dynamic bond exchange mechanisms. These polymers offer high-temperature reprocessability, self-healing, and closed-loop recyclability, where recycling efficiency can be evaluated by the recovery yield retention of mechanical properties and reuse cycles meeting the demand for sustainable manufacturing. Key aspects discussed include resin formulation, fiber impregnation, curing cycles, and die design for vitrimer systems. The temperature-dependent bond exchange reactions present challenges in achieving optimal curing and strong fiber–matrix adhesion. Recent studies indicate that vitrimer-based composites can maintain structural integrity while enabling recycling and repair, with mechanical performance such as flexural and tensile strength comparable to conventional composites. Incorporating vitrimer materials into pultrusion could enable high-performance, lightweight products for a circular economy. The remaining challenges include optimizing curing kinetics, improving interfacial adhesion, and scaling production for widespread industrial adoption.

Fiber composites↗
DOE OSTI2025

Customizable Aperture Geometry in Metal–Organic Frameworks for Kinetic Hydrocarbon Separation

Precise control of aperture dimensions is crucial in adsorptive separations of hydrocarbons, as it directly affects key parameters such as selectivity, capacity, diffusion, and recyclability. The development of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) has enabled the fine-tuning of local pore environments to address important hydrocarbon separations. However, customizing the aperture geometry to tune the kinetic separation performance remains challenging. Here, we deploy a mixed-linker synthesis strategy, combining long and short linkers on fcu net Zr-MOFs with equilateral triangular apertures to construct isoreticular multivariate MOFs, NU-415 and NU-416, with tailored isosceles triangular apertures suitable for the separation of hexane isomers. Sorption, liquid batch separation, and X-ray diffraction measurements demonstrate significantly improved selectivity, capacity, stability, and recyclability of NU-415 and NU-416 compared with Zr-muconate and MOF-801. Notably, both NU-415 and NU-416 achieve uptake capacities of 2.2 mmol g –1 in 1 min with an n-hexane to 2,2-dimethylbutane selectivity over 200 in an equimolar ternary mixture at ambient conditions, comparable to leading reported materials. Mechanistic studies confirm that separation performance is predominantly governed by significant kinetic differences rather than by thermodynamics. Furthermore, the successful customization of aperture geometry not only enables superior linear to monobranched hexane selectivity in NU-415 but also demonstrates the mixed-linker synthesis strategy as a promising solution for precise and predictable pore architecture control in MOFs.

Adsorption↗
DOE OSTI2023

A Comparison of Emerging and Industry Benchmark Photovoltaic Backsheets Between Different Outdoor Locations

Recent interest within the photovoltaic (PV) module industry is largely directed toward enhanced lifetimes in the field, balanced with improved recyclability. Traditionally, fluoropolymer-based backsheets have been used, however, are difficult to recycle. Emerging polyolefin (PO)-based backsheets are more recyclable and can be formulated to be robust. Properties of different fluoropolymer- and non-fluoropolymer-based backsheet coupons and in encapsulated silicon mini modules that have been fielded in Albuquerque, NM and Cocoa, FL are reported here. Seven backsheets were examined: two novel PO's, TPT, APO, PPE, AAA, and KPf. Methods of examination include module electrical performance (I - V flash test), surface morphology (optical microscope and gloss), polymer chemical structure (FTIR), EL imaging, mechanical tensile testing, DC breakdown voltage, DSC (phase transitions), and optical performance (reflectance spectra).

industries↗
NASA NTRS2006

Generating Aromatics From CO2 on Mars or Natural Gas on Earth

Methane to aromatics on Mars ( METAMARS ) is the name of a process originally intended as a means of converting Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide to aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygen, which would be used as propellants for spacecraft to return to Earth. The process has been demonstrated on Earth on a laboratory scale. A truncated version of the process could be used on Earth to convert natural gas to aromatic hydrocarbon liquids. The greater (relative to natural gas) density of aromatic hydrocarbon liquids makes it more economically feasible to ship them to distant markets. Hence, this process makes it feasible to exploit some reserves of natural gas that, heretofore, have been considered as being "stranded" too far from markets to be of economic value. In the full version of METAMARS, carbon dioxide is frozen out of the atmosphere and fed to a Sabatier reactor along with hydrogen (which, on Mars, would have been brought from Earth). In the Sabatier reactor, these feedstocks are converted to methane and water. The water is condensed and electrolyzed to oxygen (which is liquefied) and hydrogen (which is recycled to the Sabatier reactor). The methane is sent to an aromatization reactor, wherein, over a molybdenum-on-zeolite catalyst at a temperature 700 C, it is partially converted into aromatic hydrocarbons (specifically, benzene, toluene, and naphthalene) along with hydrogen. The aromatics are collected by freezing, while unreacted methane and hydrogen are separated by a membrane. Most of the hydrogen is recycled to the Sabatier reactor, while the methane and a small portion of the hydrogen are recycled to the aromatization reactor. The partial recycle of hydrogen to the aromatization reactor greatly increases the catalyst lifetime and eases its regeneration by preventing the formation of graphitic carbon, which could damage the catalyst. (Moreover, if graphitic carbon were allowed to form, it would be necessary to use oxygen to remove it.) Because the aromatics contain only one hydrogen atom per carbon atom, METAMARS produces four times as much propellant from a given amount of hydrogen as does a related process that includes the Sabatier reaction and electrolysis but not aromatization. In the terrestrial version of METAMARS, the Sabatier reactor and electrolyzer would be omitted, while the hydrogen/ methane membrane-separating membrane, the aromatization reactor, and the unreacted-gas-recycling subsystem would be retained. Natural gas would be fed directly to the aromatization reactor. Because natural gas consists of higher hydrocarbons in addition to methane, the aromatization subprocess should be more efficient than it is for methane alone.

Muscatello, Anthony C.↗