Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “electrode array”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Direct effects of prolonged TNF-α and IL-6 exposure on neural activity in human iPSC-derived neuron-astrocyte co-cultures

Cognitive impairment is one of the many symptoms reported by individuals suffering from long-COVID and other post-viral infection disorders such as myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). A common factor among these conditions is a sustained immune response and increased levels of inflammatory cytokines. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) are two such cytokines that are elevated in patients diagnosed with long-COVID and ME/CFS. In this study, we characterized the changes in neural functionality, secreted cytokine profiles, and gene expression in co-cultures of human iPSC-derived neurons and primary astrocytes in response to prolonged exposure to TNF-α and IL-6. We found that exposure to TNF-α produced both a concentration-independent and concentration-dependent response in neural activity. Burst duration was significantly reduced within a few days of exposure regardless of concentration (1 pg/mL – 100 ng/mL) but returned to baseline after 7 days. Treatment with low concentrations of TNF-α (e.g., 1 and 25 pg/mL) did not lead to changes in the secreted cytokine profile or gene expression but still resulted in significant changes to electrophysiological features such as interspike interval and burst duration. Conversely, treatment with high concentrations of TNF-α (e.g., 10 and 100 ng/mL) led to reduced spiking activity, which may be correlated to changes in neural health, gene expression, and increases in inflammatory cytokine secretion (e.g., IL-1β, IL-4, and CXCL-10) that were observed at higher TNF-α concentrations. Prolonged exposure to IL-6 led to changes in bursting features, with significant reduction in the number of spikes in bursts across a wide range of treatment concentrations (i.e., 1 pg/mL–10 ng/mL). In combination, the addition of IL-6 appears to counteract the changes to neural function induced by low concentrations of TNF-α, while at high concentrations of TNF-α the addition of IL-6 had little to no effect. Conversely, the changes to electrophysiological features induced by IL-6 were lost when the cultures were co-stimulated with TNF-α regardless of the concentration, suggesting that TNF-α may play a more pronounced role in altering neural function. These results indicate that increased concentrations of key inflammatory cytokines associated with long-COVID can directly impact neural function and may be a component of the cognitive impairment associated with long-COVID and other post-viral infection disorders.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2011

Characterization and monitoring of subsurface processes using parallel computing and electrical resistivity imaging

This newsletter discusses recent advancement in subsurface resistivity characterization and monitoring capabilities. The BC Cribs field desiccation treatability test resistivity monitoring data is use an example to demonstrate near-real time 3D subsurface imaging capabilities. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a method of imaging the electrical resistivity distribution of the subsurface. An ERT data collection system consists of an array of electrodes, deployed on the ground surface or within boreholes, that are connected to a control unit which can access each electrode independently (Figure 1). A single measurement is collected by injecting current across a pair of current injection electrodes (source and sink), and measuring the resulting potential generated across a pair of potential measurement electrodes (positive and negative). An ERT data set is generated by collecting many such measurements using strategically selected current and potential electrode pairs. This data set is then processed using an inversion algorithm, which reconstructs an estimate (or image) of the electrical conductivity (i.e. the inverse of resistivity) distribution that gave rise to the measured data.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2023

System and method for three-dimensional in vitro flexible microelectrode array

The present disclosure relates to a biocompatible, in vitro probe system. The probe system may have a substrate and a culture well supported on the substrate. The culture well defines a three-dimensional volume for containing in vitro cultures of electroactive cells. The probe system has at least one probe subsystem supported on the substrate. The probe subsystem has at least one probe having an array of electrodes, with the probe being disposed within the culture well for in vitro electrically communicating with the electroactive cells. The probe subsystem is adapted to be interfaced to an external instrumentation/recording device.

Soscia, David↗
DOE OSTI2018

NiCo2S4 nanotube arrays grown on flexible carbon fibers as battery-type electrodes for asymmetric supercapacitors

Highlights: • NiCo{sub 2}S{sub 4} nanotube arrays grew on carbon cloth through a facile two-step hydrothermal process. • The prepared NiCo{sub 2}S{sub 4} nanotube arrays were used as the supercapacitor electrode. • The asymmetric supercapacitor based NiCo{sub 2}S{sub 4} nanotube arrays possesses a superior energy density and power density. - Abstract: NiCo{sub 2}S{sub 4} nanotube arrays grown on carbon cloth are prepared successfully by a facile two-step method. The as-prepared tubular nanoarchitecture deliver a high specific capacity of 578 C/g at a galvanostatic charge-discharge current density of 0.5 A/g with good cycling stability in 3 M KOH aqueous solution. Furthermore, the all-solid-state asymmetric supercapacitor based NiCo{sub 2}S{sub 4} nanotube arrays as the positive electrode shows a superior energy density of 24.78 Wh/kg at a power density of 1770.13 W/kg. The results reveal that the as-synthesized NiCo{sub 2}S{sub 4} nanotube arrays might be promising electrode materials for electrochemical energy storage.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2015

Multifunctional potentiometric gas sensor array with an integrated temperature control and temperature sensors

Embodiments of the subject invention relate to a gas sensor and method for sensing one or more gases. An embodiment incorporates an array of sensing electrodes maintained at similar or different temperatures, such that the sensitivity and species selectivity of the device can be fine tuned between different pairs of sensing electrodes. A specific embodiment pertains to a gas sensor array for monitoring combustion exhausts and/or chemical reaction byproducts. An embodiment of the subject device related to this invention operates at high temperatures and can withstand harsh chemical environments. Embodiments of the device are made on a single substrate. The devices can also be made on individual substrates and monitored individually as if they were part of an array on a single substrate. The device can incorporate sensing electrodes in the same environment, which allows the electrodes to be coplanar and, thus, keep manufacturing costs low. Embodiments of the device can provide improvements to sensitivity, selectivity, and signal interference via surface temperature control.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2014

Array of surface-confined glow discharges in atmospheric pressure helium: Modes and dynamics

Array of atmospheric pressure surface discharges confined by a two-dimensional hexagon electrode mesh is studied for its discharge modes and temporal evolution so as to a theoretical underpinning to their growing applications in medicine, aerodynamic control, and environmental remediation. Helium plasma surface-confined by one hexagon-shaped rim electrode is shown to evolve from a Townsend mode to a normal and abnormal glow mode, and its evolution develops from the rim electrodes as six individual microdischarges merging in the middle of the hexagon mesh element. Within one hexagon element, microdischarges remain largely static with the mesh electrode being the instantaneous cathode, but move towards the hexagon center when the electrode is the instantaneous anode. On the entire array electrode surface, plasma ignition is found to beat an unspecific hexagon element and then spreads to ignite surrounding hexagon elements. The spreading of microdischarges is in the form of an expanding circle at a speed of about 3 × 10{sup 4} m/s, and their quenching starts in the location of the initial plasma ignition. Plasma modes influence how input electrical power is used to generate and accelerate electrons and as such the reaction chemistry, whereas plasma dynamics are central to understand and control plasma instabilities. The present study provides an important aspect of plasma physics of the atmospheric surface-confined discharge array and a theoretical underpinning to its future technological innovation.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2020

High-Performance Solid-State Lithium-Ion Battery with Mixed 2D and 3D Electrodes

It is well established that the miniaturization of batteries has not kept pace with the miniaturization of electronics. Three-dimensional (3D) batteries, which were developed with the intent of improving microbattery performance, have had limited success because of fabrication challenges and material constraints. Solid-state, 3D batteries have been particularly susceptible to these shortcomings. In this paper we demonstrate that the incorporation of a high conductivity, solid electrolyte is the key to achieving a non-planar solid-state battery with high areal-capacity and high power-density. The model, 2.5D platform used in this study is a modification of the more typical 3D configuration in that it is comprised of a cathode array of pillars (3D) and a planar (2D) anode. This 2.5D geometry exploits the use of a high conductivity, ionogel electrolyte (10 -3 S cm -1 ) which interpenetrates the 3D electrode array. The 2.5D battery offers high areal energy densities from the post array while the high-conductivity, solid electrolyte enables high power densities (3.7 mWh cm -2 at 2.8 mW cm -2 ). Here, the reported solid-state 2.5D device exceeds the energy and power densities of any 3D solid-state system and the derived multiphysics model provides guidance for achieving significantly higher energy and power densities.

2.5D batteries↗
DOE OSTI2019

Time domain-induced polarization geophysical data collected in the Rifle Floodplain, Colorado, USA

The IP data set was collected using a time domain-induced polarization (TDIP) method along 65 profiles of various lengths over the floodplain. Surface time domain?induced polarization (TDIP) data was collected to create the 3?D images of the complex electrical resistivity, in terms of magnitude and phase, which are associated with mineral precipitation and other lithological properties. The TDIP data was then used to estimate the spatial distribution of naturally reduced zones, which are known to be biogeochemical hotspots in floodplains having increased uranium and other redox-sensitive metal concentrations as well as high carbon contents. In the TDIP method, the transient decay of voltage is measured after current shut-off, typically in the form of an integral of decay curves over a predefined time window (so-called integral chargeability). TDIP measurements at the site were collected using the Syscal Iris Pro Switch equipment with a square-wave current injection, 50% duty cycle, and a pulse length of 2 s. The integral chargeability measurements were carried out using 20 windows during voltage decay between 240 and 1840 ms after current shut-off. Tomographic measurements were collected by deploying stainless steel electrodes with an electrode separation of 1.8 m and using a dipole-dipole ‘‘skip-2’’ and ‘‘skip-3’’ measuring protocol (i.e., for a dipoles length of 5.4 and 7.2 m, respectively). The sequence of dipole-dipole measurements was carefully arranged to (1) minimize unwanted electromagnetic coupling effects in the data, avoiding potential measurements with electrodes located inside the current dipole, (2) prevent voltage measurements using electrodes, which might be polarized due to previous current injection, and (3) increase the signal-to-noise ratio for an intended exploration depth of 8 m, i.e., the bottom of the aquifer. All measurements were collected as normal and reciprocal pairs for estimation of the data error. The IP measurements were collected with symmetric arrays (i.e., the measuring equipment placed at the center of the electrode array) with a maximum of 36 electrodes, considering that longer profiles revealed a significant increase in the normal-reciprocal misfit for the measurements of the decay curve, probably due to greater impact of electromagnetic coupling on the data. The TDIP data sets were inverted in a twodimensional domain along each transect using CRTomo, which is a smoothness-constraint inversion code based on a finite element algorithm. The resistivity and phase shift values at each pixel were then assigned at the corresponding point within the 3-D floodplain domain (the black rectangle Figure 1b) and used in the 3-D estimation. The TDIP inversion results provided the distribution of the complex resistivity, expressed in terms of its magnitude and phase-shift. The analysis of the normal-reciprocal misfit was used to estimate the relative error. We removed the measurement with smallest voltage difference (<2 mV), representing about 2% variations in the data. For the inversion of TDIP measurements, chargeability values were linearly converted to frequency domain phase values (at the fundamental frequency of 0.125 Hz), by assuming a constant-phase response. This approach has been demonstrated to provide consistent results in previous studies

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2012

Properties of convective cells generated in magnetized toroidal plasmas

Convective cells for turbulence control, generated by means of biased electrodes, are investigated in the simple magnetized toroidal plasmas of TORPEX. A two-dimensional array of 24 electrodes is installed on a metal limiter to test different biasing schemes. This allows influencing significantly both radial and vertical blob velocities. It is shown that these changes agree quantitatively with the flows deduced from the time averaged potential perturbations induced by the biasing. Detailed measurements along and across the magnetic field provide a rather clear picture of the effect of biasing on time averaged profiles. The biased electrodes produce perturbations of the plasma potential and density profiles that are fairly uniform along the magnetic field. Background flows influence the location where potential variations are induced. The magnitude of the achievable potential variations in the plasma is strongly limited by cross-field currents and saturates at large bias voltages once the electrodes draw electron saturation current. A quantitative discussion on the origin of cross-field currents is presented, considering contributions related with diamagnetic drifts, ion inertia, collisions with neutrals, and viscosity.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2014

Controllable synthesis of mesoporous Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake array and its application for supercapacitor

Graphical abstract: Electrodeposited mesoporous Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake arrays exhibit porous structure composed of mesoporous nanoflakes and high supercapacitor performance. - Highlights: • Mesoporous Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake arrays are prepared via electrodeposition method. • Mesoporous nanowall arrays are favorable for fast ion/electron transfer. • Mesoporous Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake arrays show excellent supercapacitor performance. - Abstract: A mesoporous Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake array grown on carbon cloth is prepared by a facile electrodeposition method with a following annealing process. The as-prepared Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake possesses a continuous mesopores ranging from 2 to 5 nm and grows tightly on the substrate forming a porous net-like structure with macropores of 20–200 nm. The electrochemical performance of the mesoporous Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoflake arrays as pseudocapcitor electrode are investigated by cyclic voltammograms and galvanostatic charge/discharge tests in 2 M KOH. The as-prepared Co{sub 3}O{sub 4} array exhibits a high discharge capacitance and excellent rate capability with 450 F g{sup −1}, 436 F g{sup −1}, 408 F g{sup −1}, 380 F g{sup −1}and 363 F g{sup −1} at 1, 2, 4, 10, and 20 A g{sup −1}, respectively. The specific capacitance of 81% is maintained from 1 A g{sup −1} to 20 A g{sup −1}. The electrode also shows rather good cycling stability and exhibits a specific capacitance of 414 F g{sup −1} after 5000 cycles.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Oxygen reduction reaction induced pH-responsive chemo-mechanical hydrogel actuators

We describe and characterize elementary designs for electrochemical micro- and macro-scale chemomechanical hydrogel actuators. The actuation of a pH-sensitive cross-linked polyacrylic acid (PAA) hydrogel is driven in the model devices through the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) occurring at the electrodes of an embedded Au mesh micro-electrochemical array. Proton consumption by the ORR at the cathode of the embedded electrochemical cell leads to the formation of a localized pH gradient that in turn drives the strain response in the composite actuators. The dynamics result from the ionization of the carboxylic acid moieties of the PAA network in the high pH region, yielding an osmotic pressure that drives a volumetric expansion due to water imbibition. This system actuates both stably and reversibly; when the electrochemically-induced ORR is halted, the localized pH gradient dissipates due to diffusive mixing, which in turn relaxes the induced strains. Two approaches to the fabrication of hydrogel actuators were examined in this work. The first method adopted a design based on small flagella (~0.2 mm × 1.5 mm × 60 μm, width × length × height) in which the actuating PAA structures are molded atop a set of fixed electrodes mounted on a supporting substrate. These hydrogel actuators show fast, large-amplitude, and largely reversible responses in the ORR mediated chemomechanical dynamics. We also investigated larger hydrogel actuators (~4.5 mm × 11 mm × 1 mm, width × length × height), based on an autonomous design that embeds an open mesh stretchable micro-electrode array within the hydrogel. Furthermore, the significant and design-dependent impacts of mass transfer on the chemomechanical dynamics are evidenced in each case, a feature examined to elucidate more efficient mesoscopic design rules for actuators of this form.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2018

Ultrafine Pt Nanoparticle-Decorated Pyrite-Type CoS 2 Nanosheet Arrays Coated on Carbon Cloth as a Bifunctional Electrode for Overall Water Splitting

To improve the utilization efficiency of precious metals, metal-supported materials provide a direction for fabricating highly active and stable heterogeneous catalysts. Here, carbon cloth (CC)-supported Earth-abundant CoS 2 nanosheet arrays (CoS 2 /CC) are presented as ideal substrates for ultrafine Pt deposition (Pt-CoS 2 /CC) to achieve remarkable performance toward the hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions (HER/OER) in alkaline solutions. Notably, the Pt-CoS 2 /CC hybrid delivers an overpotential of 24 mV at 10 mA cm –2 and a mass activity of 3.89 A Ptmg –1 , which is 4.7 times higher than that of commercial Pt/C, at an overpotential of 130 mV for catalyzing the HER. An alkali-electrolyzer using Pt-CoS 2 /CC as a bifunctional electrode enables a water-splitting current density of 10 mA cm –2 at a low voltage of 1.55 V and can sustain for more than 20 h, which is superior to that of the state-of-the-art Pt/C+RuO 2 catalyst. Further experimental and theoretical simulation studies demonstrate that strong electronic interaction between Pt and CoS 2 synergistically optimize hydrogen adsorption/desorption behaviors and facilitate the in situ generation of OER active species, enhancing the overall water-splitting performance. This research highlights the regulation of interfacial and electronic synergy in pursuit of highly efficient and durable supported catalysts for hydrogen and oxygen electrocatalytic applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Riverbed Temperature and 4D ERT Monitoring Reveals Heterogenous Horizontal and Vertical Groundwater-Surface Water Exchange Flows Under Dynamic Stage Conditions

Groundwater surface water exchange plays a critical role in physical, biological, and geochemical function of coastal and riverine systems. Observing exchange flow behavior in heterogeneous systems is a primary challenge, particularly when flows are governed by dynamic river stage or tidal variations. In this paper we demonstrate a novel application of time-lapse 3D electrical resistivity tomography and temperature monitoring where an array of thermistors installed beneath a riverbed double as resistivity electrodes. We use the array to monitor stage driven exchange flows over a 6-day period in a dynamic, stage-driven high order stream. We present a method for addressing the otherwise confounding effects of the moving river-surface boundary on the raw resistivity data, thereby enabling successful tomographic imaging. Temperature time-series at each thermistor location and time-lapse 3D images of changes in bulk electrical conductivity together provide a detailed description of exchange dynamics over a 10-meter by 45-meter section of the riverbed, to a depth of approximately 5 m. Results reveal highly variable flux behavior throughout the monitoring domain including both horizontal and vertical exchange flows.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

Four-dimensional electrical conductivity monitoring of stage-driven river water intrusion: Accounting for water table effects using a transient mesh boundary and conditional inversion constraints

Our paper describes and demonstrates two methods of providing a priori information to the surface-based time-lapse three-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) problem for monitoring stage-driven or tide-driven surface water intrusion into aquifers. First, a mesh boundary is implemented that conforms to the known location of the water table through time, thereby enabling the inversion to place a sharp bulk conductivity contrast at that boundary without penalty. Moreover, a nonlinear inequality constraint is used to allow only positive or negative transient changes in EC to occur within the saturated zone, dependent on the relative contrast in fluid electrical conductivity between surface water and groundwater. A 3-D field experiment demonstrates that time-lapse imaging results using traditional smoothness constraints are unable to delineate river water intrusion. The water table and inequality constraints provide the inversion with the additional information necessary to resolve the spatial extent of river water intrusion through time.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2022

Implementation of Ion Mobility Spectrometry-Based Separations in Structures for Lossless Ion Manipulations (SLIM)

Structures for Lossless Ion Manipulations (SLIM) is a powerful variant of traveling wave ion mobility spectrometry (TW-IMS) that uses a serpentine pattern of microelectrodes deposited onto printed circuit boards to achieve ultralong ion path lengths (13.5 m). Ions are propelled through SLIM platforms via arrays of TW electrodes while RF and DC electrodes provide radial confinement, establishing near lossless transmission. The recent ability to cycle ions multiple times through a SLIM has allowed ion path lengths to exceed 1000 m, providing unprecedented separation power and the ability to observe ion structural conformations unobtainable with other IMS technologies. The combination of high separation power, high signal intensity, and the ability to couple with mass spectrometry places SLIM in the unique position of being able to address longstanding proteomics and metabolomics challenges by allowing the characterization of isomeric mixtures containing low abundance analytes.

Hollerbach, Adam L.↗
DOE OSTI2012

Palliative Treatment of Rectal Carcinoma Recurrence Using Radiofrequency Ablation

Purpose: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of CT-guided radiofrequency (RF) ablation for the palliative treatment of recurrent unresectable rectal tumors. Materials and Methods: Twenty-seven patients with locally recurrent rectal cancer were treated with computed tomography (CT)-guided RF ablation. Therapy was performed with the patient under conscious sedation with a seven- or a nine-array expandable RF electrode for 8-10 min at 80-110 Degree-Sign C and a power of 90-110 W. All patients went home under instructions the next day of the procedure. Brief Pain Inventory score was calculated before and after (1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 3 months, and 6 months) treatment. Results: Complete tumor necrosis rate was 77.8% (21 of a total 27 procedures) despite lesion location. BPI score was dramatically decreased after the procedure. The mean preprocedure BPI score was 6.59, which decreased to 3.15, 1.15, and 0.11 at postprocedure day 1, week 1, and month 1, respectively, after the procedure. This decrease was significant (p < 0.01 for the first day and p < 0.001 for the rest of the follow-up intervals (paired Student t test; n - 1 = 26) for all periods during follow-up. Six patients had partial tumor necrosis, and we were attempted to them with a second procedure. Although the necrosis area showed a radiographic increase, no complete necrosis was achieved (secondary success rate 65.6%). No immediate or delayed complications were observed. Conclusion: CT-guided RF ablation is a minimally invasive, safe, and highly effective technique for treatment of malignant rectal recurrence. The method is well tolerated by patients, and pain relief is quickly achieved.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Photoelectric properties and charge dynamics in ZnO nanowires/Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9} and ZnO nanowires/In{sub 2}O{sub 3}/Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9} heterostructures

ZnO nanowires arrays were preformed in a horizontal double-tube system. Two types of heterostructures (ZnO nanowires/Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9} and ZnO nanowires/In{sub 2}O{sub 3}/Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9}) and three-dimensional solar cells were fabricated with ZnO nanowires arrays as working electrode, In{sub 2}O{sub 3} as buffer layer, and Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9} as inorganic dye and hole collector. It is suggested that two types of heterostructures have the similar absorption properties with single Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9}. However, the results of steady state and electric field-induced surface photovoltage indicate that ZnO nanowires/In{sub 2}O{sub 3}/Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9} exhibits the higher photovoltaic response than ZnO nanowires/Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9}. Using the transient surface photovoltage spectroscopy, we further studied the separation and transport mechanism of photogenerated charges. Furthermore, Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9}/In{sub 2}O{sub 3}/ZnO cells presents the better performance than Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9}/ZnO cells and the highest efficiencies are about 6.4% and 5.2%, respectively. It is suggested that direct paths, interface barrier, built-in electric field, and double energy level matchings between conduction bands (Cu{sub 4}Bi{sub 4}S{sub 9} and In{sub 2}O{sub 3}, In{sub 2}O{sub 3} and ZnO) have obvious effect on the separation of photogenerated charges. Then we discussed the synthetic action on the charge dynamics from these factors.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗