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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 163 records · Page 9
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Integrative path modeling and QTL mapping identify maturity, stem strength, and cell wall composition driving lettuce resistance to Sclerotinia minor

Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ) is highly vulnerable to Sclerotinia minor , the pathogen causing lettuce drop. Breeding for resistance is the most effective control strategy; however, full resistance has not been achieved, and current partial resistance sources are often linked with undesirable traits, such as early bolting. This study aimed to unravel the genetic basis of partial resistance to S. minor and its relationship with plant maturity (bolting), stem mechanical strength (SMS), and cell wall composition (CWC) using a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from a cross between the susceptible iceberg cv. ‘Salinas’ and the resistant oil-seed accession PI 251246. Field evaluations indicated that resistance was linked to earlier bolting, stronger stems, and higher pentose content. Path analysis demonstrated that earlier-maturing plants exhibited increased resistance through enhanced SMS and modified CWC, particularly with higher xylose and lower arabinose levels. Further analysis indicated a significant relationship between syringyl lignin content and resistance, especially in plants with varying bolting responses. Three key quantitative trait loci (QTLs) on linkage groups (LG) 2, 6, and 7 were consistently associated with resistance, bolting, and SMS. Importantly, residual QTL analysis revealed that the resistance locus on LG7 acted independently of maturity, suggesting a distinct resistance mechanism. Callose synthase emerged as a key candidate gene within the LG7 resistance QTL, located near - but distinct from - genes associated with plant maturity and flowering. These findings provide valuable insights into decoupling resistance from early bolting, suggesting a pathway for breeding lettuce cultivars with improved disease resistance and delayed bolting.

Lactuca↗
DOE OSTI2023

Ductile adhesive elastomers with force-triggered ultra-high adhesion strength

Elastomers play a vital role in many forthcoming advanced technologies in which their adhesive properties determine materials’ interface performance. Despite great success in improving the adhesive properties of elastomers, permanent adhesives tend to stick to the surfaces prematurely or result in poor contact depending on the installation method. Thus, elastomers with on-demand adhesion that is not limited to being triggered by UV light or heat, which may not be practical for scenarios that do not allow an additional external source, provide a solution to various challenges in conventional adhesive elastomers. Herein, we report a novel, ready-to-use, ultra high-strength, ductile adhesive elastomer with an on-demand adhesion feature that can be easily triggered by a compression force. The precursor is mainly composed of a capsule-separated, two-component curing system. After a force-trigger and curing process, the ductile adhesive elastomer exhibits a peel strength and a lap shear strength of 1.2 × 10 4 N m -1 and 7.8 × 10 3 kPa, respectively, which exceed the reported values for advanced ductile adhesive elastomers. The ultra-high adhesion force is attributed to the excellent surface contact of the liquid-like precursor and to the high elastic modulus of the cured elastomer that is reinforced by a two-phase design. In conclusion, incorporation of such on-demand adhesion into an elastomer enables a controlled delay between installation and curing so that these can take place under their individual ideal conditions, effectively reducing the energy cost, preventing failures, and improving installation processes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Using simultaneous x-ray diffraction and velocity interferometry to determine material strength in shock-compressed diamond

We determine the strength of laser shock-compressed polycrystalline diamond at stresses above the Hugoniot elastic limit using a technique combining x-ray diffraction from the Linac Coherent Light Source with velocity interferometry. X-ray diffraction is used to measure lattice strains, and velocity interferometry is used to infer shock and particle velocities. These measurements, combined with density-dependent elastic constants calculated using density functional theory, enable determination of material strength above the Hugoniot elastic limit. Furthermore, our results indicate that diamond retains approximately 20 GPa of strength at longitudinal stresses of 150–300 GPa under shock compression.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Strong and recyclable bio-derived poly(ester amide) hot-melt adhesive

Bio-based adhesives offer inherent advantages over conventional petrochemical-derived systems, including renewable sourcing, reduced environmental impact and potential degradability. However, most bio-based adhesives suffer from poor adhesion strength, limited substrate compatibility and a lack of chemical recyclability. Here, in this work, we present a bio-derived multiblock poly(ester amide) adhesive that leverages microphase segregation between different segments to reconcile mechanical robustness with strong interfacial bonding. Notably, this multiblock architecture is accessed through a one-pot, selective acceptorless dehydrogenative polymerization, obviating the need for multistep synthesis. The materials exhibit excellent adhesion across a range of substrates including metals, glass and wet wood surpassing commercial benchmarks, while also demonstrating thermal stability, tunable mechanical properties and closed-loop chemical recyclability even in the presence of other commodity plastics. Furthermore, the adhesive strength of these materials could be tuned for various potential applications through control over the chemical composition of the polymer. By integrating renewable feedstocks, high-performance functionality and efficient chemical circularity within a single platform, this work provides a viable pathway toward more sustainable adhesive technologies and contributes to advancing circular materials manufacturing.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Measurement of the energy distribution of electrons escaping confinement from an electron cyclotron resonance ion source

Production of high charge state ions in electron cyclotron resonance ion sources (ECRISs) is dependent on the electron energy distribution (EED) within the source plasma. In order to better understand the EED, a measurement of electrons escaping axially from an ECRIS device has been performed at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory. Electrons were measured escaping from the Superconducting Source for Ions, driven at 18 GHz. Dependencies of the observed EED on the confining magnetic field strength and injected microwave power are reported. This paper focuses on large peaks of electrons in the 400–1200 keV energy range. Measurements of the axial bremsstrahlung spectrum have been simultaneously carried out to provide a direct comparison between both techniques. A comparison between the energy associated with the peak of the electron distribution and the spectral temperature of the bremsstrahlung distribution is shown.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Off-state magnetoresistance in long-channel germanium Schottky-barrier MOSFETs

An increasing magnetic field perpendicular to an undoped semiconductor surface at low temperature is known to strengthen the binding of localized electrons to stationary ions, as the wavefunction's tails evolve from exponential to Gaussian. It is also known that application of a high bias voltage to a depleted semiconductor can liberate bound charge and induce a large drop in electrical resistance. We connect these established results to experimental electrical transport measurements on off-state germanium Schottky-barrier metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFETs) with an aluminum oxide insulating dielectric and platinum germanide contacts. We make measurements at the three distinct orientations of the magnetic field with respect to the substrate and the current. At 6 K, we observe sharp attenuation of current by more than 2 orders of magnitude, within 60 mT, at a crossover magnetic field perpendicular to the substrate. A 1 T magnetic field attenuates the current by more than 4 orders of magnitude. The strength of the attenuation and the value of the crossover field are controlled by both the gate–source and drain–source voltages. The attenuation is much weaker when the magnetic field is parallel to the current. Finally, we orient the magnetic field parallel to the substrate, but perpendicular to the current, allowing us to distinguish charge hopping at the oxide interface from charge hopping in the bulk. In conclusion, this large off-state magnetoresistance can be exploited for cryogenic magnetic- and photo-detection, and for high-bias, low-leakage MOSFETs.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2022

Connecting radio emission to AGN wind properties with broad absorption line quasars

ABSTRACT Broad absorption line quasars (BALQSOs) show strong signatures of powerful outflows, with the potential to alter the cosmic history of their host galaxies. These signatures are only seen in ∼10 per cent of optically selected quasars, although the fraction significantly increases in IR and radio selected samples. A proven physical explanation for this observed fraction has yet to be found, along with a determination of why this fraction increases at radio wavelengths. We present the largest sample of radio matched BALQSOs using the LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Data Release 2 and employ it to investigate radio properties of BALQSOs. Within the DR2 footprint, there are 3537 BALQSOs from Sloan Digital Sky Survey DR12 with continuum signal-to-noise ≥5. We find radio-detections for 1108 BALQSOs, with an important subpopulation of 120 LoBALs, an unprecedented sample size for radio matched BALQSOs given the sky coverage to date. BALQSOs are a radio-quiet population that show an increase of ×1.50 radio-detection fraction compared to non-BALQSOs. LoBALs show an increase of ×2.22 that of non-BALQSO quasars. We show that this detection fraction correlates with wind-strength, reddening, and C iv emission properties of BALQSOs and that these features may be connected, although no single property can fully explain the enhanced radio detection fraction. We create composite spectra for subclasses of BALQSOs based on wind strength and colour, finding differences in the absorption profiles of radio-detected and radio-undetected sources, particularly for LoBALs. Overall, we favour a wind-ISM interaction explanation for the increased radio-detection fraction of BALQSOs.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2020

High Speed, Localized Multi-Point Strain Measurements on a Containment Vessel at 1.7 MHz Using Swept-Wavelength Laser-Interrogated Fiber Bragg Gratings

Dynamic elastic strain in ~1.8 and 1.0 m diameter containment vessels containing a high explosive detonation was measured using an array of fiber Bragg gratings. The all-optical method, called real-time localized strain measurement, recorded the strain for 10 ms after detonation with additional measurements being sequentially made at a rate of 1.7 MHz. A swept wavelength laser source provided the repetition rate necessary for such high-speed measurements while also providing enough signal strength and bandwidth to simultaneously measure 8 or more unique points on the vessel’s surface. The data presented here arethen compared with additional diagnostics consisting of a fast spectral interferometer and an optical backscatter reflectometer to show a comparison between the local and global changes in the vessel strain, both dynamically and statically to further characterize the performance of the localized strain measurement. The results are also compared with electrical resistive strain gauges and finite element analysis simulations.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Understanding the Nature of an Unusual Post-starburst Quasar with Exceptionally Strong Ne v Emission

We present a z = 0.94 quasar, SDSS J004846.45-004611.9, discovered in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey III (SDSS-III) BOSS survey. A visual analysis of this spectrum reveals highly broadened and blueshifted narrow emission lines, in particular, [Ne v] λ3426 and [O III ] λ5007, with outflow velocities of 4000 km s -1 , along with unusually large [Ne v] λ3426/[Ne III ] λ3869 ratios. The gas shows higher ionization at higher outflow velocities, indicating a connection between the powerful outflow and the unusual strength of the high ionization lines. The spectral energy distribution and the i – W3 color of the source reveal that it is likely a core extremely red quasar (ERQ); a candidate population of young active galactic nuclei (AGN) that are violently blowing out gas and dust from their centers. The dominance of host galaxy light in its spectrum and its fortuitous position in the SDSS S82 region allows us to measure its star formation history and investigate variability for the first time in an ERQ. Our analysis indicates that SDSS J004846.45-004611.9 underwent a short-lived starburst phase 400 Myr ago and was subsequently quenched, possibly indicating a time lag between star formation quenching and the onset of AGN activity. We also find that the strong extinction can be uniquely attributed to the AGN and does not persist in the host galaxy, contradicting a scenario where the source has recently transitioned from being a dusty submillimeter galaxy. In our relatively shallow photometric data, the source does not appear to be variable at 0.24–2.4 μm in the rest frame, most likely due to the dominant contribution of host galaxy starlight at these wavelengths.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

The HTAP_v3 emission mosaic: merging regional and global monthly emissions (2000–2018) to support air quality modelling and policies

This study, performed under the umbrella of the Task Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution (TF-HTAP), responds to the global and regional atmospheric modelling community's need of a mosaic emission inventory of air pollutants that conforms to specific requirements: global coverage, long time series, spatially distributed emissions with high time resolution, and a high sectoral resolution. The mosaic approach of integrating official regional emission inventories based on locally reported data, with a global inventory based on a globally consistent methodology, allows modellers to perform simulations of high scientific quality while also ensuring that the results remain relevant to policymakers. HTAP_v3, an ad hoc global mosaic of anthropogenic inventories, has been developed by integrating official inventories over specific areas (North America, Europe, Asia including Japan and South Korea) with the independent Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) inventory for the remaining world regions. The results are spatially and temporally distributed emissions of SO 2 , NO $x$ , CO, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), NH 3 , PM 10 , PM 2.5 , black carbon (BC), and organic carbon (OC), with a spatial resolution of 0.1º × 0.1º and time intervals of months and years, covering the period 2000–2018. The emissions are further disaggregated into 16 anthropogenic emitting sectors. This paper describes the methodology applied to develop such an emission mosaic, reports on source allocation, differences among existing inventories, and best practices for the mosaic compilation. One of the key strengths of the HTAP_v3 emission mosaic is its temporal coverage, enabling the analysis of emission trends over the past 2 decades. The development of a global emission mosaic over such long time series represents a unique product for global air quality modelling and for better-informed policymaking, reflecting the community effort expended by the TF-HTAP to disentangle the complexity of transboundary transport of air pollution.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

The HTAP_v3.2 emission mosaic: merging regional and global monthly emissions (2000–2020) to support air quality modelling and policies

This study, performed under the umbrella of the Task Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution (TF-HTAP), responds to the need of the global and regional atmospheric modelling community of having a mosaic emission inventory of air pollutants that conforms to specific requirements: global coverage, long time series, spatially distributed emissions with high time resolution, and a high sectoral resolution. The mosaic approach of integrating official regional emission inventories based on locally reported data, with a global inventory based on a globally consistent methodology, allows modellers to perform simulations of a high scientific quality while also ensuring that the results remain relevant to policymakers. HTAP_v3.2, an ad-hoc global mosaic of anthropogenic inventories, is an update to the HTAP_v3 global mosaic inventory and has been developed by integrating official inventories over specific areas (North America, Europe, Asia including China, Japan and Korea) with the independent Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) inventory for the remaining world regions. The results are spatially and temporally distributed emissions of SO 2 , NO x , CO, NMVOC, NH 3 , PM 10 , PM 2.5 , Black Carbon (BC), and Organic Carbon (OC), with a spatial resolution of 0.1 × 0.1° and time intervals of months and years covering the period 2000–2020 (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17086684, Crippa, 2025, https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dataset_htap_v32, last access: 27 October 2025). The emissions are further disaggregated to 16 anthropogenic emitting sectors. This paper describes the methodology applied to develop such an emission mosaic, reports on source allocation, differences among existing inventories, and best practices for the mosaic compilation. One of the key strengths of the HTAP_v3.2 emission mosaic is its temporal coverage, enabling the analysis of emission trends over the past two decades. The development of a global emission mosaic over such long time series represents a unique product for global air quality modelling and for better-informed policy making, reflecting the community effort expended by the TF-HTAP to disentangle the complexity of transboundary transport of air pollution.

Guizzardi, Diego [European Commission, Ispra (Ital↗
DOE OSTI2024

Carbon sequestration into lime-stabilized soils: Engineering and mineralogical characterization

Stabilizing weak clayey soils with lime is an effective method for improving the mechanical properties of soil. However, lime production is an energy-intensive process producing significant CO 2 emissions in lime-stabilized soils, which can be counteracted through accelerated carbonation that enhances its engineering performance. The present study evaluates accelerated carbonation of lime-treated soils by adding gaseous (CO 2 -rich gas), liquid (water-CO 2 mixture), and solid (sodium bicarbonate) CO 2 sources. Results indicated that samples carbonated with gaseous CO 2 exhibited 100% lime carbonation, while samples treated with solid and aqueous sources of CO 2 had a mean lime carbonation of 60% and 40%, respectively. Further, all lime-treated-carbonated samples exhibited a mean 50% increase in unconfined compressive strength compared to the untreated samples after a 7-day curing period. Durability evaluation through cyclic wetting and drying indicated that the carbonated samples had higher durability than the untreated samples. X-ray computed tomography showed that adding solid and liquid sources of CO 2 facilitated the flocculation of montmorillonite, reducing the porosity. However, a higher dosage of solid CO 2 induced clay dispersion, increasing the porosity. X-ray diffraction and thermogravimetric analysis verified CO 2 sequestration through the formation of calcite, a thermodynamically stable polymorph of calcium carbonate.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Unified wavefront singularity characterization of three-dimensional elastodynamic time-domain half-space Green's function under impulsive boundary and internal loads

Founded on a novel analytical formulation that led to a rigorous yet compact path-integral representation of the time-domain elastodynamic half-space Green's function, a unified analysis of the possible occurrence of different singular wavefront behaviour in the response under arbitrary impulsive internal or surface point loads at arbitrary source-receiver locations is presented. With the decomposition of the general solution into distinct initiating and reflected wave group integrals that share a common factored format and simple contour definitions, the mathematical framework is shown to allow a straightforward identification of the specific conditions and the particular wave groups that are responsible for the singular wavefront phenomena without resorting to advanced analytic function theories or asymptotic methods. Analytic characterizations of the nature, strength and direction of all intrinsic singular wavefront behaviours of the three-dimensional Green's function in three canonical cases of source-receiver configurations are given in a dual integral-closed form format to facilitate their theoretical understanding as well as computational applications. Graphical illustrations of their variation with the source-receiver configuration and the medium's Poisson's ratio together with relevant comparison and clarifications of some classical treatments are included.

Green’s functions↗
DOE OSTI2024

3D modeling of deep borehole electromagnetic measurements with energized casing source for fracture mapping at the Utah Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy

Here, we present a 3D numerical modelling analysis evaluating the deployment of a borehole electromagnetic measurement tool to detect and image a stimulated zone at the Utah Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy geothermal site. As the depth to the geothermal reservoir is several kilometres and the size of the stimulated zone is limited to several 100 m, surface-based controlled-source electromagnetic measurements lack the sensitivity for detecting changes in electrical resistivity caused by the stimulation. To overcome the limitation, the study evaluates the feasibility of using a three-component borehole magnetic receiver system at the Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy site. To provide sufficient currents inside and around the enhanced geothermal reservoir, we use an injection well as an energized casing source. To efficiently simulate energizing the injection well in a realistic 3D resistivity model, we introduce a novel modelling workflow that leverages the strengths of both 3D cylindrical-mesh-based electromagnetic modelling code and 3D tetrahedral-mesh-based electromagnetic modelling code. The former is particularly well-suited for modelling hollow cylindrical objects like casings, whereas the latter excels at representing more complex 3D geological structures. In this workflow, our initial step involves computing current densities along a vertical steel-cased well using a 3D cylindrical electromagnetic modelling code. Subsequently, we distribute a series of equivalent current sources along the well's trajectory within a complex 3D resistivity model. We then discretize this model using a tetrahedral mesh and simulate the borehole electromagnetic responses excited by the casing source using a 3D finite-element electromagnetic code. This multi-step approach enables us to simulate 3D casing source electromagnetic responses within a complex 3D resistivity model, without the need for explicit discretization of the well using an excessive number of fine cells. We discuss the applicability and limitations of this proposed workflow within an electromagnetic modelling scenario where an energized well is deviated, such as at the Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy site. Using the workflow, we demonstrate that the combined use of the energized casing source and the borehole electromagnetic receiver system offer measurable magnetic field amplitudes and sensitivity to the deep localized stimulated zone. The measurements can also distinguish between parallel-fracture anisotropic reservoirs and isotropic cases, providing valuable insights into the fracture system of the stimulated zone. Besides the magnetic field measurements, vertical electric field measurements in the open well sections are also highly sensitive to the stimulated zone and can be used as additional data for detecting and imaging the target. We can also acquire additional multiple-source data by grounding the surface electrode at various locations and repeating borehole electromagnetic measurements. This approach can increase the number of monitoring data by several factors, providing a more comprehensive dataset for analysing the deep-localized stimulated zone. The numerical analysis indicates that it is feasible to use the combination of the energized casing and downhole electromagnetic measurements in monitoring localized stimulated zone at large depths.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Strength measurement of the $E^{lab}_α = 830$ keV resonance in the 22 Ne (α,n) 25 Mg reaction using a stilbene detector

The interplay between the 22 Ne (α,γ) 26 Mg reaction and the competing 22 Ne ⁢(α,n) 25 Mg reaction determines the efficiency of the latter as a neutron source at the temperatures of stellar helium burning. In both cases, the rates are dominated by the α-cluster resonance at 830 keV. This resonance plays a particularly important role in determining the strength of the neutron flux for both the weak and main s process as well as the n process. Recent experimental studies based on transfer reactions suggest that the neutron and γ-ray strengths for this resonance are approximately equal. In this study, the 22 Ne (α,n) 25 Mg resonance strength has been remeasured and found to be similar to the previous direct studies. Finally, this reinforces an 830 keV resonance strength that is approximately a factor of 3 larger for the 22 Ne ⁢(α,n) 25 Mg reaction than for the 22 Ne (α,γ) 26 Mg reaction.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Strong parallel evidence of selection during switchgrass sward establishment in hybrid and lowland ecotypes

Switchgrass sward establishment results in up to 90% seedling mortality. The degree of selection during sward establishment has not been reported using modern genetic methods. Pooled leaf samples were sequenced from replicated swards of 46 half-sib families from two breeding groups (lowland and hybrid) before and through 3 years of stand establishment. Pooled allele frequencies were then assessed using fixation indices (Fst) and an independent data set was used to predict the polygenic impact of establishment selection on two traits (heading date and winter survivorship). Last, the DNA pools were assigned survival rankings to predict the sward survival genomically estimated breeding values within the training data set. Strong and parallel selection occured in both breeding groups. Five genomic regions exceeded the significant threshold of 99.9% in >10 families, indicating consistent selection across families and breeding groups. Polygenic trait predictions determined that establishment selection was partially associated with winter survivorship but resulted in variable heading date alterations. The genomewide variation is consistent with selection for a small number of related parental lines. This study observed strong selection for a small number of hybrid and coastal ecotype individuals which are promising germplasm sources for improved sward survival. This confirms prior reports of sward selection during grassland establishment and highlights the strength of pooled DNA sequencing for survival traits.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

ORBITaL-Net: A labeled training library for large-scale building feature extraction

Over the course of several years, nearly 1.5 million building outlines have been created from approximately 128,000 training tiles covering roughly 7,000 km 2 of very high-resolution multispectral overhead imagery, primarily dated between 2010 and 2020. This dataset, dubbed the Oak Ridge Building Image and TrAining Label Net (ORBITaL-Net), is designed for machine learning applications and is global in scope, with samples drawn from 72 countries across North America, South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. ORBITaL-Net captures a great diversity in geographic setting, structural characteristics, land use (urban and rural), terrain, and imagery conditions. While the labeled building outlines are themselves valuable, the dataset’s true strength lies in the pairing of these labels with corresponding reference imagery, which is being released for open source use. Similar to SpaceNet and Replicable AI For Microplanning (ramp), this building outline dataset will allow the larger computer vision community from academia, government, and industry the opportunity to develop robust, scalable, and generalizable geospatial machine learning techniques. Unlike SpaceNet and ramp, which offer high resolution labels and imagery primarily for large urban cities, ORBITaL-Net is not focused on training samples from heavily populated areas but instead aims to capture the innate variability of conditions present in both the physical environment and imagery collections.

Geography↗
DOE OSTI2023

Utah FORGE: Triaxial Direct Shear Results

This submission contains a report and associated data from triaxial direct shear tests conducted by Los Alamos National Laboratory. The samples used were sourced from 16A(78)-32 well core. The primary objectives of this test were to determine the shear strength in both intact and residual states, evaluate dilation against displacement, assess permeability in relation to displacement, time, and normal stress, understand the relationship between aperture and normal stress, and monitor the effluent chemistry as a function of time.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗