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DOE OSTI2021

Surface and Active Layer Water Chemistry, Teller Road Mile Marker 27, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, 2016-2018

This dataset provides the results of spatial surveys of aqueous geochemistry conducted at Teller Road Site, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Surface water and soil pore water samples were collected from multiple depth within the active layer at designated Intensive Stations 2 through 9 at the Teller Road MM 27 Site (TL_MM27). Reported analytes include dissolved methane and carbon dioxide, dissolved organic and inorganic carbon, major inorganic anions, and major and minor cations. Samples and measurements were collected from 2016-2018. Specifically, samples were collected in September of 2016, August and September of 2017, and August of 2018. Most of the samples were collected from piezometers installed at various depths within the active layer (70 cm max). A few are surface water grab samples. Data are provided in a single comma separated (.xlsx / .csv) file. One supplemental file is also included. It provides the results of a limited set of analyses (dissolved methane and carbon dioxide and Fe(II)) on surface and soil pore water samples collected at Teller (TL_MM27) and Council (CN_MM71) locations in September 2019. The metadata and data are draft with outstanding clarifications and additions to come. The Next-Generation Ecosystem Experiments: Arctic (NGEE Arctic), was a 10-year research effort (2012-2022) to reduce uncertainty in Earth System Models by developing a predictive understanding of carbon-rich Arctic ecosystems and feedbacks to climate. NGEE Arctic was supported by the Department of Energy?s Office of Biological and Environmental Research. The NGEE Arctic project had two field research sites: 1) located within the Arctic polygonal tundra coastal region on the Barrow Environmental Observatory (BEO) and the North Slope near Utqiagvik (Barrow), Alaska and 2) multiple areas on the discontinuous permafrost region of the Seward Peninsula north of Nome, Alaska. Through observations, experiments, and synthesis with existing datasets, NGEE Arctic provided an enhanced knowledge base for multi-scale modeling and contributed to improved process representation at global pan-Arctic scales within the Department of Energy?s Earth system Model (the Energy Exascale Earth System Model, or E3SM), and specifically within the E3SM Land Model component (ELM).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

AXEAP (ARGONNE X-RAY EMISSION PACKAGE)

Argonne X-ray Emission Package (AXEAP), a singular purpose software package for processing X-ray emission (XES) images collected with a 2-dimensional position sensitive pixel array detector, has been developed. AXEAP can rapidly convert XES image files into a spectral form by applying parallel computation and unsupervised machine learning to compute vast amount of image data. Special focus has been placed on designing user-friendly-interface for processing multiple edges, non-resonant and resonant x-ray emission image analysis, in order to make data processing quick and easy. AXEAP is free software and is written in MATLAB, armed with powerful libraries and toolboxes. The software runs on all common operating systems such as Linux, Window, and Mac.

SUN, CHENGJUN↗

DOE OSTI2016

A New Consolidated Storage Facility for Used Nuclear Fuel in Andrews County, Texas - 16418

On February 6, 2015, Waste Control Specialists LLC (WCS) announced its plan to file a license application with the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to construct and operate a Consolidated Interim Storage Facility (CISF). Upon issuance of the license, WCS would be authorized to receive Used Nuclear Fuel (UNF) and reactor related Greater Than Class C Low Level Radioactive Waste (referred hence forth as UNF) at the CISF in late 2020. WCS based its decision to license a CISF based on strong support from the State of Texas and the local community's willingness to host such a facility in Andrews County, Texas. WCS' decision to license a CISF in a supportive community is consistent with the consent-based licensing approach recommended by the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future. WCS intends to use existing technology developed by AREVA and NAC International that have already been approved by the NRC to transport UNF from existing commercial nuclear reactors across the nation for interim storage at its 14,000 acre site in Andrew County, Texas. In the pre-application licensing meetings held with the NRC, WCS underscored that UNF would be removed first from the shutdown decommissioned reactor sites and transported to the CISF. Approximately eighty percent of the UNF currently residing at the shutdown decommissioned reactor sites can be safely placed into the storage systems developed by AREVA and NAC International that are currently licensed by the NRC. WCS plans to store up to 40,000 Metric Tons of Heavy Metal (MTHM) at the CISF that would be constructed in eight phases over the next 20 years. WCS intends to submit its license application for the CISF to the NRC by April 2016. The license application will request authorization to possess up to 5,000 MTHM of UNF for Phase One which can accommodate storing the fuel located at over ten shutdown decommissioned reactor sites. As discussed with the NRC, the license application will be developed following NRC regulatory guidance to comply with the technical requirements specified in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 72, Licensing Requirements for the Independent Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel, High-Level Radioactive Waste, and Reactor-Related Greater Than Class C Waste. In addition, to filing the license application, WCS is also seeking legislative changes to the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 requiring the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to take title of the UNF at the commercial nuclear reactor sites. Under such legislative changes, the DOE would also be responsible for the transport of UNF to the CISF. In addition to preparing the CISF License Application, WCS and its partners AREVA and NAC International are prepared to work with DOE to facilitate the development of the UNF transportation infrastructure in the timeframe needed to support CISF operations. The WCS site and technical approach give it several advantages which uniquely position it to become the first successful commercial CISF in the U.S. These advantages include: broad consent-based support at the local, state, and Congressional level; an operating waste disposal site with an existing transportation infrastructure; and the use of already licensed systems to address 80% of the UNF currently in dry storage at shutdown sites in the U.S. WCS firmly believes this initiative will provide an economically viable option for consolidated interim storage of UNF until a permanent geologic repository becomes available. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2018

A Blockchain-Based Decentralized Data Storage and Access Framework for PingER

The blockchain is an innovative technology which opened doors to new applications for solving numerous problems in distributed environments. In this study, we design a blockchain-based data storage and access framework for PingER (worldwide end-to-end Internet performance measurement project) to remove its total dependence on a centralized repository. We use the permissioned blockchain and Distributed Hash Tables (DHT) for this purpose. In the proposed framework, metadata of the files are stored on the blockchain whereas the actual files are stored off-chain through DHT at multiple locations using a peer-to-peer network of PingER Monitoring Agents. Lastly, this will provide decentralized storage, distributed processing, and efficient lookup capabilities to the PingER framework.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2019

Utah FORGE: GPS Data - Deformation Monitoring

This data bundle contains raw GPS data files and resulting data using Trimble Business Center and NOAA OPUS to process the GPS data in spreadsheets with station coordinates and elevations. A map of station locations is included along with the final processing report which includes pre-processing, pre-stack time migration, and pre-stack depth migration. It also contains a readme.text file goes into further explanation.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Sample Identifiers and Metadata Reporting Format for Environmental Systems Science

The ESS-DIVE sample identifiers and metadata reporting format primarily follows the System for Earth Sample Registration (SESAR) Global Sample Number (IGSN) guide and template, with modifications to address Environmental Systems Science (ESS) sample needs and practicalities (IGSN-ESS). IGSNs are associated with standardized metadata to characterize a variety of different sample types (e.g. object type, material) and describe sample collection details (e.g. latitude, longitude, environmental context, date, collection method). Globally unique sample identifiers, particularly IGSNs, facilitate sample discovery, tracking, and reuse; they are especially useful when sample data is shared with collaborators, sent to different laboratories or user facilities for analyses, or distributed in different data files, datasets, and/or publications. To develop recommendations for multidisciplinary ecosystem and environmental sciences, we first conducted research on related sample standards and templates. We provide a comparison of existing sample reporting conventions, which includes mapping metadata elements across existing standards and Environment Ontology (ENVO) terms for sample object types and environmental materials. We worked with eight U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) funded projects, including those from Terrestrial Ecosystem Science and Subsurface Biogeochemical Research Scientific Focus Areas. Project scientists tested the process of registering samples for IGSNs and associated metadata in workflows for multidisciplinary ecosystem sciences. We provide modified IGSN metadata guidelines to account for needs of a variety of related biological and environmental samples. While generally following the IGSN core descriptive metadata schema, we provide recommendations for extending sample type terms, and connecting to related templates geared towards biodiversity (Darwin Core) and genomic (Minimum Information about any Sequence, MIxS) samples and specimens. ESS-DIVE recommends registering samples for IGSNs through SESAR, and we include instructions for registration using the IGSN-ESS guidelines. Our resulting sample reporting guidelines, template (IGSN-ESS), and identifier approach can be used by any researcher with sample data for ecosystem sciences.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

East River Pore Water FTICR-MS Data associated with "Geomorphic and Hydrogeochemical Controls on Fine-Scale Hyporheic Microbiome Assembly and Function"

Pore water samples were collected from distributed locations around Meander A in East River (Crested Butte, CO, USA) during the summer of 2018. This dataset consists of the characterization of dissolved organic matter using 12 Tesla Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS; in .xml format) analyzed through the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (EMSL; https://www.pnnl.gov/environmental-molecular-sciences-laboratory).This study aimed to understand organic matter assemblages differ within a streambed with differing geomorphology and the interplay between streambed organic matter and microbiome function. Any published work that utilizes data presented in this dataset should cite the dataset using the DOI number. If using the dataset, please acknowledge the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science (BER) Subsurface Biogeochemical Research (SBR) program, the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (EMSL), and Worldwide Hydrobiogeochemical Observation Network for Dynamic River Systems (WHONDRS). The publication DOI will be added to this abstract when available.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

COMPASS-FME Terrestrial Ecosystem Manipulation to Probe the Effects of Storm Treatments (TEMPEST) Experiment Tree Inventory

This is the tree inventory (diameter, species, and live/dead status) data from the Terrestrial Ecosystem Manipulation to Probe the Effects of Storm Treatments (TEMPEST) experimental site. This manipulative, ecosystem-scale TEMPEST experiment is part of the COMPASS-FME (Coastal Observations, Mechanisms, and Predictions Across Systems and Scales: Field Measurements and Experiments; see https://compass.pnnl.gov/FME/COMPASSFME) project. It addresses the potential for freshwater and estuarine-water disturbance events to alter tree function, species composition, and ecosystem processes in a deciduous coastal forest in eastern Maryland, USA. The experiment uses a large-unit (2000 m2), un-replicated experimental design, with three 50 m × 40 m plots serving as control, freshwater, and estuarine-water treatments.This dataset includes:- An overall dataset README file.- The tree inventory data in both "wide" and "long" forms. These contain the same information but are structured differently, with the former more useful for human viewers and the latter more amenable for programmatic analyses.- A key to the species/genus codes used, which follow the U.S. Department of Agriculture's PLANTS schema (https://plants.usda.gov/).- A copy of the R code used to generate the wide- and long-form data files.All files are comma-separated value (CSV) and no special software is required to read them.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2019

EGS Collab Testbed 1 Earth Model Input Files

The EGS Collab is conducting experiments in hydraulic fracturing at a depth of 1.5 km in the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) on the 4850 Level. A total of eight ~60m-long subhorizontal boreholes were drilled at that depth on the western rib of the West Access Drift. Six of these holes are used for geophysical monitoring, one is used for hydraulic fracturing and the remaining hole was designed as a production borehole. In addition to these eight boreholes, 4 5-m Jack leg boreholes were drilled for housing geophones. This submission package includes various data type that were assembled to create Earth Models of the testbed. Note: The coordinate system used is local Homestake Mine Coordinate (HMC) system from an old gold mine that was in operation for over 100 years.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

Characterization of a mixed high-energy spallation neutron–proton field using monoisotopic activation detectors

In this paper, we used monoisotopic Co, Au, and Bi threshold activation detectors to characterize the high-energy ( > 5 MeV) portion of a mixed spallation neutron–proton (n/p) field. The field was produced by irradiating the natural uranium target–blanket subcritical assembly Quinta with 660-MeV protons from Phasotron accelerator at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna. Experimental yields of the (n,x) and (p,x) reactions were compared to the calculated reaction rates, which represent the convolution of particle flux and reaction cross section. The flux was simulated using the radiation transport code MCNPX 2.7.0, and the cross sections were extracted from the following three sources: the intranuclear cascade model INCL4.2, the phenomenological spherical optical model from TALYS-1.8, and the evaluated nuclear data file TENDL-2015. We show that, in most cases, the evaluated data provide a closer agreement with the experimental data in comparison with INCL4.2 model, which is an integral part of MCNPX. Finally, our results bring a contribution to those fields of physics research that utilize computer prediction of neutron generation in the energy range of tens to hundreds MeV, such as the medical radioisotope production, radiation shielding of spallation neutron sources, and nuclear transmutation in accelerator-driven systems.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2015

TU-AB-201-02: An Automated Treatment Plan Quality Assurance Program for Tandem and Ovoid High Dose-Rate Brachytherapy

Purpose: For tandem and ovoid (T&O) HDR brachytherapy in our clinic, it is required that the planning physicist manually capture ∼10 images during planning, perform a secondary dose calculation and generate a report, combine them into a single PDF document, and upload it to a record- and-verify system to prove to an independent plan checker that the case was planned correctly. Not only does this slow down the already time-consuming clinical workflow, the PDF document also limits the number of parameters that can be checked. To solve these problems, we have developed a web-based automatic quality assurance (QA) program. Methods: We set up a QA server accessible through a web- interface. A T&O plan and CT images are exported as DICOMRT files and uploaded to the server. The software checks 13 geometric features, e.g. if the dwell positions are reasonable, and 10 dosimetric features, e.g. secondary dose calculations via TG43 formalism and D2cc to critical structures. A PDF report is automatically generated with errors and potential issues highlighted. It also contains images showing important geometric and dosimetric aspects to prove the plan was created following standard guidelines. Results: The program has been clinically implemented in our clinic. In each of the 58 T&O plans we tested, a 14- page QA report was automatically generated. It took ∼45 sec to export the plan and CT images and ∼30 sec to perform the QA tests and generate the report. In contrast, our manual QA document preparation tooks on average ∼7 minutes under optimal conditions and up to 20 minutes when mistakes were made during the document assembly. Conclusion: We have tested the efficiency and effectiveness of an automated process for treatment plan QA of HDR T&O cases. This software was shown to improve the workflow compared to our conventional manual approach.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

HERO WEC V1.0 2024 - WEC-Sim Detailed Simulation Runs and Summary Data

This dataset includes results from simulations of NREL's hydraulic and electric reverse osmosis wave energy converter (HEREO WEC). Simulation runs include 135 wave cases that were based on the updated WEC-Sim model, which is linked below. The data represented in this repository is based on an updated WEC-Sim model using laboratory data to tune and refine the original WEC-Sim model for the V1.0 HERO WEC. The 135 wave cases represent waves with the following wave height and wave period ranges: - Significant Wave Height: 0.25 - 3.75m in 0.25m increments - Wave Period: 5 - 13 sec in 1 sec increments Each run was simulated using a Pierson-Moskowitz irregular wave spectrum with a 100 second ramp time, a total simulation time of 3,100 seconds, and a simulation time-step of 0.005s. A reference table has been included to map each multi condition run (MCR) case with each wave condition. Summary data set includes a spreadsheet and image files with matrices that are associated with data from simulation runs. All matrices cover the same significant wave height and wave periods from the simulation runs, in the same increments. The following matrices are included: - Power Abs: The average absorbed power from the WEC (calculated from anchor reaction force and heave velocity) - Power Hyd: The average hydraulic power output at pump (calculated from pump output flow and pressure) - Power - Hyd ROi: The average hydraulic power measured at the RO system inlet (calculated from RO system pressure and flow (pre-accumulator)) - Flow - Pump out: The average flowrate measured at the pump outlet - Flow - Perm: The average permeate (clean water) production - Flow - RO (pre): The average flowrate measured at the inlet of the RO system before the accumulators - Flow - RO (post): The average flowrate measured after the accumulator bank in the RO system - Pressure - RO: The average pressure measured at the inlet of the RO system This data set has been developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Funding provided by the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Water Power Technologies Office.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗

DOE OSTI2019

Development of Ambient Mass Spectrometry Rapid Analysis Methods for Trace Inorganics

Ambient mass spectrometry is being investigated as a new method for rapidly characterizing trace inorganic species, including nuclear materials. SRNL is currently developing electrospray ionization (ESI) and paper spray ionization (PSI) methods for mass spectrometry for the detection of trace inorganic compounds JEOL AccuTOF™-DART ® LP 4G mass spectrometer. Sample analysis generates a complex three-dimensional data set with 10 2 -10 3 individual mass spectra spread temporally. To improve the quality and ease of data extraction from this amount of information, a simple data analysis pipeline written in R/R Studio has been improved and expanded upon. Specifically, the software now has header inputs to set base input/output filenames, isotopes of interest, and a list of concentrations analyzed on the instrument. Using list-based structures to enable batch processing of many concentrations at once, it then loads each file, extracts the relevant intensities for masses of interest from each spectrum, and iterates through each concentration to generate graphs of internal standard & analyte correlations, measured isotope ratios, and total ion chromatograms. It then filters the data to remove points at background levels or at the detector saturation limit. Using this filtered data, the pipeline re-creates the graphs to reveal high-quality information from a low-quality raw dataset. All graphs of the R software then output to PowerPoint format. Additionally, faster 3D visualization functionality was added to the pipeline for viewing the entire data file produced by the instrument as an intensity map. With these data analysis tools ready, samples of strontium nitrate/yttrium nitrate as an analyte/internal standard combination were measured on the AccuTOF. From the filtered data, calibration curves were prepared and limits of detection (LOD) of 1 ppb for ESI-MS and 20 ppb for PSI-MS were obtained. The quality available from the calibration curves and the low limits of detection demonstrate the value of the instrument/analysis pipeline system in characterizing trace inorganics.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2020

Distributed Accelerometer IMU-2: An Interim Development Report

This report details the development of DAIMU-2, a MEMS accelerometer-based Gyro-Free Inertial Measurement Unit (GF-IMU). Previously, a GF-IMU called the Distributed Accelerometer IMU (DAIMU) was developed at LLNL using traditional analog accelerometers. This project leverages the experience gained from DAIMU and recent advances in sensor and embedded systems technology to develop DAIMU-2. The report introduces the theory and mathematics of a GF-IMU, followed by the design of an Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) and simulation results. Finally, the DAIMU-2 prototypes developed to date are presented. After approximately one year of development work, the project was suspended, to be resumed in the future. Because of this, some efforts were partially completed, and this report attempts to indicate areas where further work is needed. MATLAB files, drawings, and other design documents have been archived for future project resumption.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2021

Monte Carlo Hauser-Feshbach computer code system to model nuclear reactions: YAHFC

A computer program framework, YAHFC, to model low-energy nuclear reactions is presented. The framework allows for reactions with incident particles ranging from protons/neutrons to alphas and is designed to address reactions that ultimately lead to the formation of compound nuclear systems that then decay statistically as outlined in concepts of Hauser and Feshbach. Additionally, instead of a reaction, it is also possible to model the decay of a nuclear system with an initial excitation and population. The code models nuclear decays with a Monte Carlo process that tracks the decay of each state. This allows for an exact representation of the spectra for all emitted particles in each of the final exit channels and the possibility of generating reaction data for simulation purposes. The program is interfaced with the optical model code system FRESCOX to calculate transmission coefficients as well as the effects of coupled channels and other direct excitations via the distorted wave Born approximation (DWBA). Modules are included to account for nuclear processes such as width corrections, pre-equilibrium emission, and fission. The program is controlled by a series of input commands and while a set of input parameters exists for each projectile and target, the input commands allow for complete control over each input parameter. Extensive data files are produced and a program is provided that converts YAHFC data files into nuclear data library entries in the generalized nuclear data structure (GNDS).

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2024

A Modular Oxygen-Selective System for Combustion Systems

Small-scale modular systems for oxygen generation offer clear benefits, including improved energy efficiency, reduced operating costs, and the flexibility to meet location-specific needs. We propose that a compact modular system could be developed using a solvent-based method for capturing and releasing oxygen, enabling “oxygen on demand” for various combustion technologies. In this project, we aim to develop and demonstrate a modular oxygen-selective approach based on Battelle IPID 31740. The use of designer solvents, which are reversible, single-component solvents capable of dissolving and separating oxygen from air, offers the advantage of unlimited chemical tunability to achieve desirable properties for efficient oxygen separation. We filed U.S. Patent (32845-E, iEdison No. 0685901-23-0184).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Improved Cross Section Generation Capability of Griffin in FY22

The Griffin code is a Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE) based reactor multiphysics analysis application jointly developed by Idaho National Laboratory and Argonne National Laboratory. The code includes a variety of deterministic steady-state transport solvers for fixed source, k-eigenvalue, adjoint, and subcritical multiplication as well as transient solvers for spatial dynamics with the improved quasi-static method. Griffin uses cross section data in the ISOXML format generated from external deterministic or Monte Carlo cross section generation codes. In recent years, the MC 2 -3 modules have been added to Griffin for fast reactor cross section generation, and the self-shielding application programming interface (SSAPI) was implemented in the ISOXML module for thermal reactor cross section generation. The on-the-fly slowing down method and double-heterogeneity treatment have been implemented to SSAPI and verified against particulate fuel-bearing graphite-moderated thermal reactor problems with high accuracy. This year, work has been focused on improving the cross section generation capability of ISOXML and streamlining the cross section generation procedures. In addition, the form function data were added to ISOXML in order to support the pin power reconstruction capability that was newly implemented in Griffin in this fiscal year. To facilitate the cross section generation using MC 2 -3 and SSAPI in Griffin, the cross section generation workflows have been set up for both fast and thermal spectrum reactors. The MOOSE action system tool was devised for fast spectrum problems, and the MOOSE stochastic tool was adopted to the branch calculation procedure for thermal spectrum problems. Meanwhile, to ensure the accuracy of group-constants, the thermal up-scattering kernel calculator accounting for resonance scattering was implemented in ISOXML, demonstrating the accurate computation of a Doppler-broadened scattering kernel of any Legendre order within a reasonable timescale. Other aspects of ISOXML, such as deletion solver and data, documentation, ISOXML file management, and the interface for Mixture, were improved as well.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Best Practices in Integrated Resource Planning: A guide for planners developing the electricity resource mix of the future

Most states today require regulated electric utilities to file an IRP every 1 to 5 years, and some utilities voluntarily prepare these plans. Planning needs have changed in recent years due to emerging load growth, plant retirements, rising costs, and more extreme weather events – among other factors. In response, Synapse Energy Economics and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory produced a joint report, Best Practices in Integrated Resource Planning: A guide for planners developing the electricity resource mix of the future. The guide offers best planning practices for electricity systems undergoing a major transition, but also contains a wealth of practical guidance to develop technically sophisticated, clearer, more effective, and state-of-the-art electric utility resource plans. The guide is for resource planning professionals and stakeholders involved in resource planning processes. This diverse group includes utility personnel tasked with conducting resource planning and making investment decisions, state regulatory commissions that develop planning guidance and oversee the resource planning process, and stakeholders that represent a wide range of interests—utility consumer advocates, environmental groups, industrial customers, local governments, independent power producers, and many other

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗