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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,765 records · Page 98
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2015

Higher harmonic ultrasonic guided waves for structural integrity assessment of dry storage canisters - 15381

Dry storage of used fuel from nuclear power plants has gone from an interim storage solution to a longer-term solution, which necessitates monitoring the integrity of the stainless steel canister that confines the used fuel. Since the storage facilities are located around the country in a variety of different environments there is a wide range of degradation mechanisms that could occur over time in the cylindrical canister. One potential degradation mode that has created significant concern is stress corrosion cracking. We propose using higher harmonic ultrasonic guided waves as a tool to nondestructively inspect used fuel canisters. Higher harmonics are generated when a wave propagates through a nonlinear elastic media. These higher harmonics have been shown to be quite sensitive to microstructural features such as dislocation substructures, persistent slip bands, precipitates, etc. The use of ultrasonic guided waves to inspect the canister is attractive due to the size of the canister and the ability of guided waves to inspect a reasonably large domain relative to traditional bulk wave ultrasonics. We will highlight our recent progress on theory, numerical simulations, and laboratory experiments to develop higher harmonic guided waves as a tool to detect microstructural changes that precede macro-scale damage. Analyzed structures include plates and hollow cylinders, and we focus on localized damage initiation, as is the case for stress corrosion cracking. Recent experiments focus on using magnetostrictive transducers in activating the fundamental shear horizontal mode (SH0) and the third harmonic that is generated due to the material nonlinearity. The magnetostrictive transducer comprises a thin iron-cobalt foil, a meandering electric coil, and a permanent magnet. These transducers are inexpensive, easy to use, and are very efficient at generating shear waves. In applications where the wavelength is larger than the plate thickness, the waves are guided by the traction free boundary conditions and propagate in the plane of the plate. For this canister application, the shear horizontal waves energize the entire thickness of the canister and propagate along the shell in the direction dictated by the meander coil. Experiments indicate that magnetostrictive transducers can generate waves that propagate in plate thicknesses of 1 mm to at least 16 mm. The SH0 mode is nondispersive and generates a third harmonic of the same mode that is shown to be sensitive to localized plastic strain and unseen fatigue damage. It has a strong potential to detect the very early stages of stress corrosion cracking. Due to the geometric configuration of dry storage casks, the transducers will need to be delivered to the inspection points by a robotic system that navigates through the cask ventilation system. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2013

Neutron irradiation effects on domain wall mobility and reversibility in lead zirconate titanate thin films

The effects of neutron-induced damage on the ferroelectric properties of thin film lead zirconate titanate (PZT) were investigated. Two sets of PbZr{sub 0.52}Ti{sub 0.48}O{sub 3} films of varying initial quality were irradiated in a research nuclear reactor up to a maximum 1 MeV equivalent neutron fluence of (5.16 {+-} 0.03) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 15} cm{sup -2}. Changes in domain wall mobility and reversibility were characterized by polarization-electric field measurements, Rayleigh analysis, and analysis of first order reversal curves (FORC). With increasing fluence, extrinsic contributions to the small-signal permittivity diminished. Additionally, redistribution of irreversible hysterons towards higher coercive fields was observed accompanied by the formation of a secondary hysteron peak following exposure to high fluence levels. The changes are attributed to the radiation-induced formation of defect dipoles and other charged defects, which serve as effective domain wall pinning sites. Differences in damage accumulation rates with initial film quality were observed between the film sets suggesting a dominance of pre-irradiation microstructure on changes in macroscopic switching behavior.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Communication: Atomic force detection of single-molecule nonlinear optical vibrational spectroscopy

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) allows for a highly sensitive detection of spectroscopic signals. This has been first demonstrated for NMR of a single molecule and recently extended to stimulated Raman in the optical regime. We theoretically investigate the use of optical forces to detect time and frequency domain nonlinear optical signals. We show that, with proper phase matching, the AFM-detected signals closely resemble coherent heterodyne-detected signals. Applications are made to AFM-detected and heterodyne-detected vibrational resonances in Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (χ{sup (3)}) and sum or difference frequency generation (χ{sup (2)})

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2019

Enhanced magnetism in lightly doped manganite heterostructures: strain or stoichiometry?

Lattice mismatch induced epitaxial strain has been widely used to tune functional properties in complex oxide heterostructures. Apart from the epitaxial strain, a large lattice mismatch also produces other effects including modulations in microstructure and stoichiometry. However, it is challenging to distinguish the impact of these effects from the strain contribution to thin film properties. Here, we use La 0.9 Sr 0.1 MnO 3 (LSMO), a lightly doped manganite close to the vertical phase boundary, as a model system to demonstrate that both epitaxial strain and cation stoichiometry induced by strain relaxation contribute to functionality tuning. The thinner LSMO films are metallic with a greatly enhanced T C which is 97 K higher than the bulk value. Such anomalies in T C and transport cannot be fully explained by the epitaxial strain alone. Detailed microstructure analysis indicates La deficiency in thinner films and twin domains formation in thicker films. Our results have revealed that both epitaxial strain and strain relaxation induced stoichiometry/microstructure modulations contribute to the modified functional properties in lightly doped manganite perovskite thin films.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electron‐Assisted Generation and Straight Movement of Skyrmion Bubble in Kagome TbMn 6 Sn 6

Abstract Topological magnetic textures are promising candidates as binary data units for the next‐generation memory device. The precise generation and convenient control of nontrivial spin topology at zero field near room temperature endows the critical advantages in skyrmionic devices but is not simultaneously integrated into one material. Here, in the Kagome plane of quantum TbMn 6 Sn 6 , the expedient generation of the skyrmion bubbles in versatile forms of lattice, chain, and isolated one by converging the electron beam, where the electron intensity gradient contributes to the dynamic generation from local anisotropy variation near spin reorientation transition (SRT) is reported. Encouragingly, by utilizing the dynamic shift of the SRT domain interface, the straight movement is actualized with the skyrmion bubble slave to the SRT domain interface forming an elastic composite object, avoiding the usual deflection from the skyrmion Hall effect. The critical contribution of the SRT domain interface via conveniently electron‐assisted heating is further theoretically validated in micromagnetic simulation, highlighting the compatible application possibility in advanced devices.

Li, Zhuolin↗
DOE OSTI2020

Analysis of ZTE MRI application to sandstone and carbonate

Micro-tomography (μCT) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) have been used to characterize porous media for decades. Here, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) enables direct visualization of pore architecture and many pulse sequences exist. In this work, we tested the MRI pulse sequence Zero Echo Time (ZTE) to study sandstone and carbonate for its ability to address short relaxation times. We aimed at resolving two fluid conduit scales, i.e. pores and fractures. In this research, we study tighter porous systems than those previously reported using ZTE. Additionally, Pore Cluster Analysis (PCA), combined with ZTE, can be used to analyze pore-fracture connectivity of relatively large core plugs. We show that ZTE can resolve two-scale pore systems simultaneously, i.e. fractures and pores. By combining Time-Domain NMR pore-size analysis and PCA, we show that careful selection of resolution is necessary to understand transport in porous media.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2017

Numerical electromagnetic frequency domain analysis with discrete exterior calculus

In this paper, we perform a numerical analysis in frequency domain for various electromagnetic problems based on discrete exterior calculus (DEC) with an arbitrary 2-D triangular or 3-D tetrahedral mesh. We formulate the governing equations in terms of DEC for 3-D and 2-D inhomogeneous structures, and also show that the charge continuity relation is naturally satisfied. Then we introduce a general construction for signed dual volume to incorporate material information and take into account the case when circumcenters fall outside triangles or tetrahedrons, which may lead to negative dual volume without Delaunay triangulation. Then we examine the boundary terms induced by the dual mesh and provide a systematical treatment of various boundary conditions, including perfect magnetic conductor (PMC), perfect electric conductor (PEC), Dirichlet, periodic, and absorbing boundary conditions (ABC) within this method. An excellent agreement is achieved through the numerical calculation of several problems, including homogeneous waveguides, microstructured fibers, photonic crystals, scattering by a 2-D PEC, and resonant cavities. - Highlights: • The formulation of 2D and 3D electromagnetic equations with DEC are presented. • Characteristic Hodge stars are constructed without well-centered triangulation or Delaunay triangulation. • Systematical treatment of various boundary conditions, including PMC, PEC, periodic, and absorbing boundary conditions. • Switching between E to H field can change PEC from essential boundary condition to natural boundary condition. • Quality factor of an open dielectric sphere is considered.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2020

Orbital selective spin waves in detwinned NaFeAs

The existence of orbital-dependent electronic correlations has been recognized as an essential ingredient to describe the physics of iron-based superconductors. NaFeAs, a parent compound of iron-based superconductors, exhibits a tetragonal-to-orthorhombic lattice distortion below T s ≈ 60 K, forming an electronic nematic phase with two 90° rotated (twinned) domains, and orders antiferromagnetically below T N ≈ 42 K. We use inelastic neutron scattering to study spin waves in uniaxial pressure-detwinned NaFeAs. By comparing the data with combined density functional theory and dynamical mean-field theory calculations, we conclude that spin waves up to an energy scale of E crossover ≈ 100 meV are dominated by d yz -d yz intraorbital scattering processes, which have the twofold (C 2 ) rotational symmetry of the underlying lattice. On the other hand, the spin wave excitations above E crossover , which have approximately fourfold (C 4 ) rotational symmetry, arise from the d xy -d xy intraorbital scattering that controls the overall magnetic bandwidth in this material. In addition, we find that the low-energy (E ≈ 6 meV) spin excitations change from approximate C 4 to C 2 rotational symmetry below a temperature T* (>T s ), while spin excitations at energies above E crossover have approximate C 4 rotational symmetry and are weakly temperature dependent. Here, these results are consistent with angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy measurements, where the presence of a uniaxial strain necessary to detwin NaFeAs also raises the onset temperature T* of observable orbital-dependent band splitting to above T s , thus supporting the notion of orbital selective spin waves in the nematic phase of iron-based superconductors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Background-free dual-mode optical and 13 C magnetic resonance imaging in diamond particles

Multimodal imaging—the ability to acquire images of an object through more than one imaging mode simultaneously—has opened additional perspectives in areas ranging from astronomy to medicine. In this paper, we report progress toward combining optical and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in such a “dual” imaging mode. They are attractive in combination because they offer complementary advantages of resolution and speed, especially in the context of imaging in scattering environments. Our approach relies on a specific material platform, microdiamond particles hosting nitrogen vacancy (NV) defect centers that fluoresce brightly under optical excitation and simultaneously “hyperpolarize” lattice C 13 nuclei, making them bright under MR imaging. We highlight advantages of dual-mode optical and MR imaging in allowing background-free particle imaging and describe regimes in which either mode can enhance the other. Leveraging the fact that the two imaging modes proceed in Fourier-reciprocal domains (real and k-space), we propose a sampling protocol that accelerates image reconstruction in sparse-imaging scenarios. Our work suggests interesting possibilities for the simultaneous optical and low-field MR imaging of targeted diamond nanoparticles.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Spatial Control of Substitutional Dopants in Hexagonal Monolayer WS 2 : The Effect of Edge Termination

The ability to control the density and spatial distribution of substitutional dopants in semiconductors is crucial for achieving desired physicochemical properties. Substitutional doping with adjustable doping levels has been previously demonstrated in 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs); however, the spatial control of dopant distribution remains an open field. In this work, edge termination is demonstrated as an important characteristic of 2D TMD monocrystals that affects the distribution of substitutional dopants. Particularly, in chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-grown monolayer WS 2 , it is found that a higher density of transition metal dopants is always incorporated in sulfur-terminated domains when compared to tungsten-terminated domains. Here two representative examples demonstrate this spatial distribution control, including hexagonal iron- and vanadium-doped WS 2 monolayers. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations are further performed, indicating that the edge-dependent dopant distribution is due to a strong binding of tungsten atoms at tungsten-zigzag edges, resulting in the formation of open sites at sulfur-zigzag edges that enable preferential dopant incorporation. Based on these results, it is envisioned that edge termination in crystalline TMD monolayers can be utilized as a novel and effective knob for engineering the spatial distribution of substitutional dopants, leading to in-plane hetero-/multi-junctions that display fascinating electronic, optoelectronic, and magnetic properties.

2D transition metal dichalcogenides↗
DOE OSTI2019

Polarized Soft X-ray Scattering Reveals Chain Orientation within Nanoscale Polymer Domains

Fully conjugated donor-acceptor block copolymers can serve as the active layer in organic photovoltaics and other organic electronic devices. Additionally, self-assembly into periodic domains and crystallization of the constituent blocks are crucial to enable control of the multiscale structure and consequently electronic properties. Resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS) is an invaluable tool to characterize such materials, where tuning the X-ray energy and polarization reveals molecular orientation and domain spacing. In this work, anisotropic soft X-ray scattering data reveal the type and degree of orientation within conjugated block copolymers composed of poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) and various push-pull copolymers. The maximum anisotropy is observed at the scattering vector corresponding to the spacing between block copolymer domains, which scales with the end-to-end distance of the blocks, as expected. Furthermore, the anisotropy in RSoXS data reveals that the crystalline P3HT blocks orient, on average, parallel or nearly parallel to the block copolymer interface; the average tilt angle between P3HT chains and domain interfaces can be extracted from the dependence of the anisotropy with polar angle. We interpret this angle to correspond to the average tilt of rings in the unit cell, potentially within a chiral mesostructure. Results are corroborated with scattering calculations based on simple model structures.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2014

Fast wave current drive in DEMO

The ability to non-inductively drive a large fraction of the toroidal plasma current in magnetically confined plasmas is an essential requirement for steady state fusion reactors such as DEMO. Besides neutral beam injection (NBI), electron-cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) and lower hybrid wave heating (LH), ion-cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH) is a promising candidate to drive current, in particular at the high temperatures expected in fusion plasmas. In this paper, the current drive (CD) efficiencies calculated with coupled ICRF wave / CD numerical codes for the DEMO-1 design case (R{sub 0}=9m, B{sub 0}=6.8T, a{sub p}=2.25m) [1] are presented. It will be shown that although promising CD efficiencies can be obtained in the usual ICRF frequency domain (20-100MHz) by shifting the dominant ion-cyclotron absorption layers to the high-field side, operation at higher frequencies (100-300MHz) has a stronger CD potential, provided the parasitic RF power absorption of the alpha particles can be minimized.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2025

Interfacial reconstruction effects in insulating double perovskite Nd2NiMnO6/SrTiO3 and Nd2NiMnO6/NdGaO3 thin films

Ferromagnetic insulating (FMI) double perovskite oxides (DPOs) A2BB′O6 with near-room-temperature Curie temperatures are promising candidates for ambient-temperature spintronics applications. To realize their potential, epitaxial stabilization of DPO films and understanding the effect of multiple broken symmetries across the film/substrate interface are crucial. This study investigates ultrathin films of the FMI Nd2NiMnO6 grown on SrTiO3 (STO) and NdGaO3 (NGO) substrates. By comparing growth on these substrates, we examine the influence of polarity and structural symmetry mismatches, which are absent in the NGO system. The interface exhibits immeasurable resistance in both cases. Using synchrotron x-ray diffraction, we show that films have three octahedral rotational domains because of the structural symmetry mismatch with the STO substrate. Furthermore, our coherent Bragg rod analysis of specular x-ray diffraction reveals a significant modification of the out-of-plane lattice parameter within a few unit cells at the film/substrate interface and the surface. This arises from polarity compensation and surface symmetry breaking, respectively. These structural alterations influence the Mn orbital symmetry, a dependence that we further confirm through x-ray linear dichroism measurements. Since the ferromagnetism in insulating DPOs is mediated by orbital-dependent superexchange interactions [Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 186402 (2008)0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.100.186402], our study provides a framework for understanding the evolution of magnetism in ultrathin geometry.

Bhattacharya, Nandana↗
DOE OSTI2017

Majorana Kramers pair in a nematic vortex

A time-reversal (TR) invariant topological superconductor is characterized by a Kramers pair of Majorana zero-energy modes on boundaries and in a core of a TR invariant vortex. A vortex defect that preserves TR symmetry has remained primarily of theoretical interest, since typically a magnetic field, which explicitly breaks TR, needs to be applied to create vortices in superconductors. In this paper, we show that an odd-parity topological superconductor with a nematic pairing order parameter can host a nematic vortex that preserves TR symmetry and binds a Majorana Kramers pair. Such a nematic superconductor could be realized in metal-doped Bi 2 Se 3 , as suggested by recent experiments. We provide an analytic solution for the zero modes in a continuous nematic vortex. In lattice, crystalline anisotropy can pin the two-component order parameter along high-symmetry directions. We show that a discrete nematic vortex, which forms when three nematic domains meet, also supports a TR pair of Majorana modes. Lastly, we discuss possible experiments to probe the zero modes.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2013

SATURATION OF THE MAGNETO-ROTATIONAL INSTABILITY IN STRONGLY RADIATION-DOMINATED ACCRETION DISKS

The saturation level of the magneto-rotational instability (MRI) in a strongly radiation-dominated accretion disk is studied using a new Godunov radiation MHD code in the unstratified shearing box approximation. Since vertical gravity is neglected in this work, our focus is on how the MRI saturates in the optically thick mid-plane of the disk. We confirm that turbulence generated by the MRI is very compressible in the radiation-dominated regime, as found by previous calculations using the flux-limited diffusion approximation. We also find little difference in the saturation properties in calculations that use a larger horizontal domain (up to four times the vertical scale height in the radial direction). However, in strongly radiation pressure dominated disks (one in which the radiation energy density reaches {approx}1% of the rest mass energy density of the gas), we find that Maxwell stress from the MRI turbulence is larger than the value produced when radiation pressure is replaced with the same amount of gas pressure. At the same time, the ratio between Maxwell stress and Reynolds stress is increased by almost a factor of eight compared with the gas pressure dominated case. We suggest that this effect is caused by radiation drag, which acts like bulk viscosity and changes the effective magnetic Prandtl number of the fluid. Radiation viscosity significantly exceeds both the microscopic plasma viscosity and resistivity, ensuring that radiation-dominated systems occupy the high magnetic Prandtl number regime. Nevertheless, we find that radiative shear viscosity is negligible compared to the Maxwell stress and Reynolds stress in the flow. This may have important implications for the structure of radiation-dominated accretion disks.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2021

Spin waves excitation at micron-sized, anisotropy modified regions in amorphous Fe 80 B 20 stripes: Local properties and inter-regions coupling

We report on the measurement of the local magnetization dynamics occurring, at units of GHz, in large aspect ratio stripes lithographed from reduced damping amorphous Fe 80 B 20 films. The stripes were submitted to local anisotropy modifications by micrometric beam synchrotron X-ray irradiation. Our results include data on the dispersion relationships and group velocities corresponding to spin waves excited at both the non-irradiated and the irradiated regions. Whereas in the former case we observed standing spin waves with transverse-to-the stripe axis wave vector, in the latter one, for which the wave vector of the spin waves was parallel-to-the stripe axis, propagating spin waves were excited. In both regions, we measured the effective propagation distance of the spin waves, which resulted to be independent of the wave vector orientation. In the spin waves excited at the irradiated region, we also measured the decay time and effective damping coefficient, which was in good agreement with previously reported values obtained from FMR measurements in amorphous Fe 80 B 20 continuous films. We show that the interaction of the non-irradiated and irradiated zones results, at the stripe transverse saturation remanence and under an exciting field frequency of 4 GHz, in the introduction of a π phase shift between the standing spin waves excited at both sides of the irradiated region. This result opens the possibility of using the local, transverse to the stripe axis, magnetic anisotropy easy axis induced by the X-ray irradiation as a crucial constituent of a zero-applied field spin wave phase-shifter.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

The metamorphosis of semi-classical mechanisms of confinement: from monopoles on ℝ 3 × S 1 to center-vortices on ℝ 2 × T 2

There are two distinct regimes of Yang-Mills theory where we can demonstrate confinement, the existence of a mass gap, and the multi-branch structure of the effective potential as a function of the theta angle using a reliable semi-classical calculation. The two regimes are deformed Yang-Mills theory on ℝ 3 × S 1 , and Yang-Mills theory on ℝ 2 × T 2 where the torus is threaded by a ’t Hooft flux. The weak coupling regime is ensured by the small size of the circle or torus. In the first case the confinement mechanism is related to self-dual monopoles, whereas in the second case self-dual center-vortices play a crucial role. These two topological objects are distinct. In particular, they have different mutual statistics with Wilson loops. On the other hand, they carry the same topological charge and action. We consider the theory on ℝ × T 2 × S 1 and extrapolate both the monopole and vortex regimes to a quantum mechanical domain, where a cross-over takes place. Both sides of the cross-over are described by a deformed ℤ N TQFT. On ℝ 2 × S 1 × S 1 , we derive an effective field theory (EFT) of vortices from the EFT of monopoles in the presence of a ’t Hooft flux. This construction is based on a two-stage Higgs mechanism, reducing SU(N) to U(1) N−1 in 3d first, followed by reduction to a ℤ N EFT in 2d in the second step. This result shows how monopoles transmute into center-vortices, and suggests adiabatic continuity between the two confinement mechanisms. The basic mechanism is flux fractionalization: the magnetic flux of the monopoles splits up and is collimated in such a way that 2d Wilson loops detect it as a center vortex.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Structure of Lung-Mimetic Multilamellar Bodies with Lipid Compositions Relevant in Pneumonia

The hierarchical assembly of lipids, as modulated by composition and environment, plays a significant role in the function of biological membranes and a myriad of diseases. Elevated concentrations of calcium ions and cardiolipin (CL), an anionic tetra-alkyl lipid found in mitochondria and some bacterial cell membranes, have been implicated in pneumonia recently. However, their impact on the physicochemical properties of lipid assemblies in lungs and how it impairs alveoli function is still unknown. We use small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (S/WAXS) and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) to probe the structure and dynamics of lung-mimetic multilamellar bodies (MLBs) in the presence of Ca 2+ and CL. We conjecture that CL overexpressed in the hypophase of alveoli strongly affects the structure of lung-lipid bilayers and their stacking in the MLBs. Specifically, S/WAXS data revealed that CL induces significant shrinkage of the water-layer separating the concentric bilayers in multilamellar aggregates. ssNMR measurements indicate that this interbilayer tightening is due to undulation repulsion damping as CL renders the glycerol backbone of the membranes significantly more static. In addition to MLB dehydration, CL promotes intrabilayer phase separation into saturated-rich and unsaturated-rich lipid domains that couple across multiple layers. Expectedly, addition of Ca 2+ screens the electrostatic repulsion between negatively charged lung membranes. Furthermore, when CL is present, addition of Ca 2+ results in an apparent interbilayer expansion likely due to local structural defects. Combining S/WAXS and ssNMR on systems with compositions pertinent to healthy and unhealthy lung membranes, we propose how alteration of the physiochemical properties of MLBs can critically impact the breathing cycle.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗