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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1998

Anion channels and the stimulation of anthocyanin accumulation by blue light in Arabidopsis seedlings

Activation of anion channels by blue light begins within seconds of irradiation in seedlings and is related to the ensuing growth inhibition. 5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoic acid (NPPB) is a potent, selective, and reversible blocker of these anion channels in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here we show that 20 microM NPPB blocked 72% of the blue-light-induced accumulation of anthocyanin pigments in seedlings. Feeding biosynthetic intermediates to wild-type and tt5 seedlings provided evidence that NPPB prevented blue light from up-regulating one or more steps between and including phenylalanine ammonia lyase and chalcone isomerase. NPPB was found to have no significant effect on the blue-light-induced increase in transcript levels of PAL1, CHS, CHI, or DFR, which are genes that encode anthocyanin-biosynthetic enzymes. Immunoblots revealed that NPPB also did not inhibit the accumulation of the chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase, or flavanone-3-hydroxylase proteins. This is in contrast to the reduced anthocyanin accumulation displayed by a mutant lacking the HY4 blue-light receptor, as hy4 displayed reduced expression of the above enzymes. Taken together, the data indicate that blue light acting through HY4 leads to an increase in the amount of biosynthetic enzymes but blue light must also act through a separate, anion-channel-dependent system to create a fully functional biosynthetic pathway.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS2015

Veggie ISS Validation Test Results and Produce Consumption

The Veggie vegetable production system flew to the International Space Station (ISS) in the spring of 2014. The first set of plants, Outredgeous red romaine lettuce, was grown, harvested, frozen, and returned to Earth in October. Ground control and flight plant tissue was sub-sectioned for microbial analysis, anthocyanin antioxidant phenolic analysis, and elemental analysis. Microbial analysis was also performed on samples swabbed on orbit from plants, Veggie bellows, and plant pillow surfaces, on water samples, and on samples of roots, media, and wick material from two returned plant pillows. Microbial levels of plants were comparable to ground controls, with some differences in community composition. The range in aerobic bacterial plate counts between individual plants was much greater in the ground controls than in flight plants. No pathogens were found. Anthocyanin concentrations were the same between ground and flight plants, while antioxidant and phenolic levels were slightly higher in flight plants. Elements varied, but key target elements for astronaut nutrition were similar between ground and flight plants. Aerobic plate counts of the flight plant pillow components were significantly higher than ground controls. Surface swab samples showed low microbial counts, with most below detection limits. Flight plant microbial levels were less than bacterial guidelines set for non-thermostabalized food and near or below those for fungi. These guidelines are not for fresh produce but are the closest approximate standards. Forward work includes the development of standards for space-grown produce. A produce consumption strategy for Veggie on ISS includes pre-flight assessments of all crops to down select candidates, wiping flight-grown plants with sanitizing food wipes, and regular Veggie hardware cleaning and microbial monitoring. Produce then could be consumed by astronauts, however some plant material would be reserved and returned for analysis. Implementation of this plan is a step toward developing pick-and-eat food production to supplement the packaged diet on ISS and for future exploration missions where plants could make up a larger portion of the diet. Supported by NASA Space Biology Program.

Food Safety↗
NASA NTRS2019

Leafy Greens Grown on the International Space Station May Provide a Nutritious Supplement to Astronauts' Diet

Supplemental safe food production has been an essential goal of NASA to meet the nutritional needs of astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) as well as for future long duration missions to the moon and beyond. Food crops grown in space experience different environmental conditions than plants grown on Earth (i.e. microgravity and spaceflight physical sciences impacts). To test the growth methods and effects of the space environment, red romaine lettuce Lactuca sativa cv. 'Outredgeous', was grown in Veggie plant growth chambers on the ISS. Microbiological food safety of the plants grown on the ISS was determined by heterotrophic plate counts to assess total microbial load for bacteria and fungi as well as screening for specific pathogens and isolate identification. Molecular characterization was completed using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) to provide valuable information on the taxonomic composition and community structure of the plant microbiome. Chemical analyses of plant tissue were conducted to understand spaceflight-induced changes in key elements in the space diet, phenolics, anthocyanin levels, and Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), a measure of antioxidant capacity. Three growth tests of red romaine lettuce were completed on ISS, VEG-01A, VEG-01B, and VEG-03A. Plants were harvested using two harvest methods, either a single terminal harvest (after 33 days) or cut-and-come-again repetitive harvesting (64 days total growth). Ground controls were grown simultaneously with a delay to accommodate condition monitoring and replication. A comparison of the plant tissue returned to Earth showed leaves from the second grow-out had significantly higher bacterial counts than the preceding or subsequent growth test or any of the ground controls. Fungal counts were significantly higher on the final cut-and-come-again harvest of the third grow out. None of the potential foodborne pathogens that were screened for were detected. Bacterial and fungal isolate identification and community characterization indicated similar diversity between VEG-01A and VEG-01B growth tests, however, there appeared to be subtle differences in diversity and distribution among the three growth tests. Chemical analysis of plant tissue revealed significant variation in a few elemental data, but variation in levels of phenolics, anthocyanins, and ORAC was not significantly different. This study indicated that leafy vegetable crops could safely provide an edible supplement to astronauts' diet, and our analysis provided baseline data for continual operation of the Veggie plant growth units on ISS. This research was funded by NASA's space biology program.

Food Production↗
NASA NTRS1998

Isolation and characterization of Arabidopsis mutants defective in the induction of ethylene biosynthesis by cytokinin

Cytokinins elevate ethylene biosynthesis in etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings via a post-transcriptional modification of one isoform of the key biosynthetic enzyme ACC synthase. In order to begin to dissect the signaling events leading from cytokinin perception to this modification, we have isolated a series of mutants that lack the ethylene-mediated triple response in the presence of cytokinin due to their failure to increase ethylene biosynthesis. Analysis of genetic complementation and mapping revealed that these Cin mutants (cytokinin-insensitive) represent four distinct complementation groups, one of which, cin4, is allelic to the constitutive photomorphogenic mutant fus9/cop10. The Cin mutants have subtle effects on the morphology of adult plants. We further characterized the Cin mutants by analyzing ethylene biosynthesis in response to various other inducers and in adult tissues, as well as by assaying additional cytokinin responses. The cin3 mutant did not disrupt ethylene biosynthesis under any other conditions, nor did it disrupt any other cytokinin responses. Only cin2 disrupted ethylene biosynthesis in multiple circumstances. cin1 and cin2 made less anthocyanin in response to cytokinin. cin1 also displayed reduced shoot initiation in tissue culture in response to cytokinin, suggesting that it affects a cytokinin signaling element.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS2015

Selection of Leafy Green Vegetable Varieties for a Pick-and-Eat Diet Supplement on ISS

Several varieties of leafy vegetables were evaluated with the goal of selecting those with the best growth, nutrition, and organoleptic acceptability for ISS. Candidate species were narrowed to commercially available cultivars with desirable growth attributes for space (e.g., short stature and rapid growth). Seeds were germinated in controlled environment chambers under conditions similar to what might be found in the Veggie plant growth chamber on ISS. Eight varieties of leafy greens were grown: 'Tyee' spinach, 'Flamingo' spinach, 'Outredgeous' Red Romaine lettuce, 'Waldmann's Dark Green' leaf lettuce, 'Bull's Blood' beet, 'Rhubarb' Swiss chard, 'Tokyo Bekana' Chinese cabbage, and Mizuna. Plants were harvested at maturity and biometric data on plant height, diameter, chlorophyll content, and fresh mass were obtained. Tissue was ground and extractions were performed to determine the tissue elemental content of Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca) and Iron (Fe). Following the biometric/elemental evaluation, four of the eight varieties were tested further for levels of anthocyanins, antioxidant (ORAC-fluorescein) capacity, lutein, zeaxanthin, and Vitamin K. For sensory evaluation, 'Outredgeous' lettuce, Swiss chard, Chinese cabbage, and Mizuna plants were grown, harvested when mature, packaged under refrigerated conditions, and sent to the JSC Space Food Systems Laboratory. Tasters evaluated overall acceptability, appearance, color intensity, bitterness, flavor, texture, crispness and tenderness. All varieties received acceptable scores with overall ratings greater than 6 on a 9-point hedonic scale. Chinese cabbage was the highest rated, followed by Mizuna, 'Outredgeous' lettuce, and Swiss chard. Based on our results, the selected varieties of Chinese cabbage, lettuce, Swiss chard and Mizuna seem suitable for a pick-and-eat scenario on ISS with a ranking based on all factors analyzed to help establish priority.

Nutrition↗
NASA NTRS2016

Pick and Eat Crop Testing: Dwarf Tomato and Pepper as Candidate Space Crops

Several dwarf tomato and pepper varieties were evaluated under International Space Station (ISS)-simulated growth conditions (22 degrees Centigrade, 50 percent relative humidity, 1500 parts per million CO2, and 300 micromoles per square meter per second of light for 16 hours per day) with the goal of selecting those with the best growth, nutrition, and organoleptic potential for use in a pick and eat salad crop system on ISS and future exploration flights. Testing included six cultivars of tomato (Red Robin, Scarlet Sweet 'N' Neat, Tiny Tim, Mohamed, Patio Princess, and Tumbler) and six cultivars of pepper (Red Skin, Fruit Basket, Cajun Belle, Chablis, Sweet Pickle, and Pompeii). Plants were grown to an age sufficient to produce fruit (up to 106 days for tomato and 109 days for pepper) using Turface (arcillite) potting media with 18-6-8 control-release fertilizer and supplemental nutrient solution beginning around 60-days-age. Tomato fruits were harvested when they showed full red color, beginning around 70-days age and then at weekly intervals thereafter, while peppers were grown until fruits showed color and were harvested twice (first test) and just once at the end of the second test, with the final harvests including colored and green fruit. Plant sizes, yields, and nutritional attributes were measured and used to down-select to three cultivars for each species. In particular, we were interested in cultivars that were short (dwarf) but still produced high yields. Nutritional data included elemental (Ca, Mg, Fe, and K) content, vitamin K, phenolics, lycopene (for tomato), anthocyanin, lutein, and zeaxanthin. The three down-selected cultivars for each species were grown again and the harvested fruit sent to NASA's Johnson Space Center for sensory evaluation, which included overall acceptability, appearance, color intensity, aroma, flavor and texture. The combined data were compared and given weighting factors to rank the cultivars as candidates for testing in space. Weightings gave maximum importance to plant size (smaller being good) and fruit yield (greater yields being good). For tomato, the ranking was 1) cultivar Mohamed and cultivar Red Robin (tied), and 3) cultivar Sweet N' Neat. For pepper, the ranking was 1) cultivar Pompeii, 2) cultivar Red Skin, and 3) cultivar Fruit Basket. These rankings are somewhat subjective but provide a starting point for conducting higher fidelity testing with these crops (e.g., testing with light emitting diode lighting similar to the Veggie plant unit on ISS), and ultimately conducting a flight experiment.

Food↗
NASA NTRS2016

Development and Provision of Functional Foods to Promote Health on Long-Duration Space Missions

During long-duration NASA space missions, such as proposed missions to Mars, astronauts may experience negative physiological effects such as bone loss. Functional foods such as high-lycopene, high-flavonoids and high-omega-3 products and fruits and vegetables may mitigate the negative effects of spaceflight on physiological factors including the bone health of crewmembers. Previous studies showed that current ISS provisions provide high-lycopene and high-omega-3 food items but the variety is limited, which could promote menu fatigue. Bioactive compounds can degrade like other chemical compounds and lose functionality. The native concentrations and stability of bioactive compounds have never been determined in spaceflight foods, and adequate information is not available for commercial products for the storage durations required for space exploration (5 years). The purpose of this task is to develop new spaceflight foods that are high in omega-3 fatty acids, lycopene, or flavonoids, identify commercial products with these bioactive compounds that meet spaceflight requirements, and define the stability of these nutrients in storage to enable purposeful functional food incorporation into the space food system. The impact of storage temperature on the stability of lutein, lycopene, beta-carotene, omega-3 fatty acids, phenolics, anthocyanins and sterols is being studied in 12 ISS menu items stored at three different temperatures (4, 21, 35 degree C) over 2 years. Additionally, nutrient and quality stability are being assessed on a larger food set stored at 21 degree C over 2 years that contains twelve newly developed foods, 10 commercial products repackaged to spaceflight requirements, and another 5 current ISS menu items expected to be good sources of omega-3 fatty acids, lycopene, or flavonoids. All items were shipped overnight to the Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University (Corvalis, OR) after processing and 1-year of storage and analyzed for bioactive compound concentrations. Sensory evaluation was conducted on the newly developed functional foods and commercial products with untrained panelists (n is greater than or equal to 25) using a 9-point Hedonic scale to test sensory attributes and overall acceptability after processing and 1-year of storage (21 degree C). Repeat nutritional and sensory analyses will be conducted in the same foods after the 2-year storage period is completed. The stability of bioactive compounds in the selected foods was dependent on storage temperature and food matrix. Omega-3 showed excellent stability in the analyzed products after 1-year of storage, regardless of the storage temperature; phenolic compounds also showed good stability. Lycopene was more stable in oil-based products rather than water-based products because of the protection that lipids offer to lycopene molecules. Also, lycopene was more stable in freeze-dried products than in high moisture foods. The 12 newly developed functional foods showed good overall acceptability in sensory attributes after processing (average score 7.2 out of 9.0) and maintained sensory quality through 1-year (21 degree C); the overall acceptability was on average 7.1 after storage. Similar behavior was observed for the 10 commercial products after 1 year. The developed products are good sources of omega-3 (both plant and marine), vegetables (7 vegetable-based products), and good sources of carotenoids, such as the Curry Pumpkin Soup and the Sweet and Savory Kale. Nine of the new products, such as Mango Salad, Pickled Beets, and Braised Red Cabbage, are rich in phenolic compounds. Stability of most of the studied nutrients seems to be adequate after 1-year of storage in most of the tested foods. However, storage temperature of the food must be considered during long-duration space missions to achieve stability of all nutrients. Likewise, more information is needed regarding nutrient retention after 2-years of storage to identify nutritional gaps that may be expected over the 5-year shelf life required for a Mars mission. New developed products will be filling a gap in the current space food system to minimize menu fatigue, provide specific nutrients to reduce the negative effects of long-duration space missions and maintain crew members' health. Information about bioactive compounds in developed products after 1-year and 2-year of storage will provide the knowledge base for further product development.

Bermudez-Aguirre, D.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Veggie: Space Vegetables for the International Space Station and Beyond

The Veggie vegetable production system was launched to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2014. Veggie was designed by ORBITEC to be a compact, low mass, low power vegetable production system for astronaut crews. Veggie consists of a light cap containing red, blue, and green LEDs, an extensible transparent bellows, and a baseplate with a root mat reservoir. Seeds are planted in plant pillows, small growing bags that interface with the reservoir. The Veggie technology validation test, VEG-01, was initiated with the first test crop of 'Outredgeous' red romaine lettuce. Prior to flight, lettuce seeds were sanitized and planted in a substrate of arcillite (baked ceramic) mixed with controlled release fertilizer. Upon initiation, astronauts open the packaged plant pillows, install them in the Veggie hardware, and prime the system with water. Operations include plant thinning, watering, and photography. Plants were grown on the ISS for 33 days, harvested, and returned frozen to Earth for analysis. Ground controls were conducted at Kennedy Space Center in controlled environment chambers reproducing ISS conditions of temperature, relative humidity, and CO2. Returned plant samples were analyzed for microbial food safety and chemistry including elements, antioxidants, anthocyanins and phenolics. In addition the entire plant microbiome was sequenced, and returned plant pillows were analyzed via x-ray tomography. Food safety analyses allowed us to gain approvals for future consumption of lettuce by the flight surgeons and the payload safety office. A second crop of lettuce was grown in 2015, and the crew consumed half the produce, with the remainder frozen for later analysis. This growth test was followed by testing of a new crop in Veggie, zinnias. Zinnias were grown to test a longer duration flowering crop in preparation for tests of tomatoes and other fruiting crops in the future. Zinnias were harvested in February. Samples from the second harvest of lettuce and the zinnia harvest are frozen on the ISS and will return with the next cargo return flight. Some challenges occurred in all tests, especially in the area of watering, with plants receiving insufficient or excess water leading to stressed growth. Zinnia plants were also challenged with fungal growth. Initial tests with Veggie have given us great insight into future crop production scenarios as we work to develop regular supplemental salad crop production on ISS and larger food production systems for our journey to Mars. Funding for this research comes from NASA's Space Biology Program.

Food Safety↗
NASA NTRS2017

The Stability of Bioactive Compounds in Spaceflight Foods

The status and stability of bioactive compounds in the processed and shelf-stable spaceflight food system have not previously been investigated though the presence of such compounds in aged space foods could have health significance for crews on long duration exploration missions. Over forty foods - either existing International Space Station (ISS) food provisioning items, newly developed foods for spaceflight, or commercially-available ready-to-eat foods - that were predicted to have a relatively high concentrations of one or more bioactive compounds (lycopene, lutein, omega-3 fatty acids, phenolics, sterols, and/or flavonoids) were selected for the study. Food samples were sent overnight to the Food Composition Laboratory of the Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University (Corvallis, OR) for bioactive compound analysis. Three packages of each product were blended together for the analysis to reduce package-to-package variability. All ISS food items and commercial foods were analyzed initially and after 12 and 24 months of 21degC storage. Food development occurred in a staggered fashion, so data collection for the newly developed foods continues. Lastly, sensory evaluation and additional temperature storage data (4degC, 35degC) for select foods were collected to establish additional stability parameters. Efficacious concentrations of lycopene, lutein, and omega-3 fatty acids were measured in limited spaceflight foods; two grams of sterols a day may be difficult to achieve with the current space diet. Total polyphenol delivery appears stable and adequate, but individual phenolic compounds vary in stability and were not specifically evaluated in this study. The data suggests that some bioactive compounds, like lycopene and lutein, degrade and then plateau at some equilibrium concentration. The anthocyanin stability appears to be related to storage temperature and food matrix, and lutein stability in leafy vegetables may be impacted by storage temperature. Because of the limited number of foods with high concentrations of the bioactive compounds, additional menu variety, formulation optimization, and reduced temperature storage will be required to ensure delivery of several bioactive compounds in the space food system. Validation of stability to five years will enable provisioning of these functional foods within the space food system for a mission to Mars.

Cooper, M. R.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Effects of White Leds on Growth and Phytonutrients of Outredgeous Romaine Lettuce When Supplemented with Various Monochromatic Wavelengths

Growing plants in space will be an essential part of sustaining astronauts during long-range missions. To drive photosynthesis, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are becoming superior because of their efficiency, longevity, small size, safety, and wavelength versatility. Isolating the effects of certain wavelengths on plant growth when combined with white light is attracting attention. To optimize crop production/quality in space, this study has aimed to configure novel light recipes for the Advanced Plant Habitat currently aboard the International Space Station (ISS). By using white light as a background to maintain normal growth, the addition of monochromatic wavelengths provides a clearer understanding of how each part of the visible spectrum affects plant growth. By growing Outredgeous lettuce under six treatments of White (W) LEDs, W + blue (B), W+ green (G), W + red (R), W + far red (FR), and RGB + FR LEDs with ratios similar to natural sunlight, this investigation has assessed differences in biomass, morphology, chlorophyll, and the synthesis of key phytonutrients. The potential for Outredgeous to produce anthocyanin, lutein, potassium, magnesium, and iron is paramount to maintaining astronaut health. The crop responses to each treatment have been evaluated and the optimal LED combination for both plant yield and nutrient content will be presented.

Food Production↗
NASA NTRS2019

Dwarf Tomato and Pepper Cultivars for Space Crops

Several dwarf tomato and pepper varieties were evaluated under ISS-simulated growth conditions (22ºC, 50% RH, 1500 ppm CO2, and 300 μmol m(exp -2) s(exp -1) of light for 16 h per day) with the goal of selecting those with the best growth, nutrition, and organoleptic potential for use in a pick and eat salad crop system on ISS and future exploration flights. Testing included six cultivars of tomato (Red Robin, Scarlet Sweet ’N’ Neat, Tiny Tim, Mohamed, Patio Princess, and Tumbler) and six cultivars of pepper (Red Skin, Fruit Basket, Cajun Belle, Chablis, Sweet Pickle, and Pompeii). Plants were grown to an age sufficient to produce fruit (70 to 106 days for tomato and 109 days for pepper). Tomato fruits were harvested when they showed full red color, beginning ca. 70-days age and then at weekly intervals thereafter, while peppers were grown until numerous fruits showed color and all fruits (green and colored) were harvested once at the end of the test. Plant sizes, yields, and nutritional attributes were measured and used to down-select to three cultivars for each species. In particular, we were interested in cultivars that were short (dwarf) but still produced high yields. Nutritional data included elemental (Ca, Mg, Fe, and K) composition, vitamin K, phenolics, lycopene, anthocyanin, lutein, and zeaxanthin. The three down-selected cultivars for each species were evaluated for sensory attributes, including overall acceptability, appearance, color intensity aroma, flavor and texture. The combined data were compared and given weighting factors to rank the cultivars as potential candidates for testing in space. For tomato, the ranking was 1) cv. Mohamed, 2) cv. Red Robin, and 3) cv. Sweet N’ Neat. For pepper, the ranking was 1) cv. Pompeii, 2) cv. Red Skin, and 3) cv. Fruit Basket. These rankings are somewhat subjective but provide a good starting point for conducting higher fidelity testing with these crops (e.g., testing with LED lighting similar to the Veggie plant unit), and ultimately conducting flight experiments.

Spencer, LaShelle E.↗