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NASA NTRS2017

EcAMSat and BioSentinel: Autonomous Bio Nanosatellites Addressing Strategic Knowledge Gaps for Manned Spaceflight Beyond LEO

Manned missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) require that several strategic knowledge gaps about the effects of space travel on the human body be addressed. NASA Ames Research Center has been the leader in developing autonomous bio nanosatellites, including past successful missions for GeneSat, PharmaSat, and O/OREOS, that tackled some of these issues. These nanosatellites provide in situ measurements, which deliver insight into the dynamic changes in cell behavior in microgravity. In this talk, two upcoming bio nanosatellites developed at Ames, the E. coli Antimicrobial Satellite (EcAMSat) and BioSentinel, will be discussed. Both satellites contain microfluidic systems that precisely deliver nutrients to the microorganisms stored within wells of fluidic cards. Each well, in turn, has its own 3-color LED and detector system which is used to monitor changes in metabolic activity with alamarBlue, a redox indicator, and the optical density of the cells. EcAMSat investigates the effects of microgravity on bacterial resistance to antimicrobial drugs, vital knowledge for understanding how to maintain the health of astronauts in long-term and beyond LEO spaceflight. The behavior of wild type and mutant uropathic E. coli will be compared in microgravity and with ground data to help understand the molecular mechanisms behind antibiotic resistance and how these phenotypes might change in space. BioSentinel seeks to directly measure the effects of space radiation on budding yeast S. cerevisiae, particularly double strand breaks (DSB). While hitching a ride on the SLS EM-1 mission (Orion's first unmanned mission to the moon) in 2018, BioSentinel will be kicked off and enter into a heliocentric orbit, becoming the first study of the effects of radiation on living organisms outside LEO since the Apollo program. The yeast are stored in eighteen independent 16-well microfluidic cards, which will be individually activated over the 12 month mission duration. In addition to the wild type and radiation-sensitive mutant strains, a BioSentinel strain of yeast has been developed, which requires a DSB to reactivate growth, thereby allowing for a direct measurement of DSBs caused by radiation. These two missions demonstrate the utility of using autonomous nanosatellites to address strategic knowledge gaps in the push to once again extend manned spaceflight beyond LEO.

Padgen, Michael R.↗

NASA NTRS2017

EcAMSat and BioSentinel: Autonomous Bio Nanosatellites Addressing Strategic Knowledge Gaps for Manned Spaceflight Beyond LEO

Manned missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) require that several strategic knowledge gaps about the effects of space travel on the human body be addressed. NASA Ames Research Center has been the leader in developing autonomous bio nanosatellites, including past successful missions for GeneSat, PharmaSat, and OOREOS, that tackled some of these issues. These nanosatellites provide in situ measurements, which deliver insight into the dynamic changes in cell behavior in microgravity. In this talk, two upcoming bio nanosatellites developed at Ames, the E. coli Antimicrobial Satellite (EcAMSat) and BioSentinel, will be discussed. Both satellites contain microfluidic systems that precisely deliver nutrients to the microorganisms stored within wells of fluidic cards. Each well, in turn, has its own 3-color LED and detector system which is used to monitor changes in metabolic activity with alamarBlue, a redox indicator, and the optical density of the cells. EcAMSat investigates the effects of microgravity on bacterial resistance to antimicrobial drugs, vital knowledge for understanding how to maintain the health of astronauts in long-term and beyond LEO spaceflight. The behavior of wild type and mutant uropathic E. coli will be compared in microgravity and with ground data to help understand the molecular mechanisms behind antibiotic resistance and how these phenotypes might change in space. BioSentinel seeks to directly measure the effects of space radiation on budding yeast S. cerevisiae, particularly double strand breaks (DSB). While hitching a ride on the SLS EM-1 mission (Orions first unmanned mission to the moon) in 2018, BioSentinel will be kicked off and enter into a heliocentric orbit, becoming the first study of the effects of radiation on living organisms outside LEO since the Apollo program. The yeast are stored in eighteen independent 16-well microfluidic cards, which will be individually activated over the 12 month mission duration. In addition to the wild type and radiation-sensitive mutant strains, a BioSentinel strain of yeast has been developed, which requires a DSB to reactivate growth, thereby allowing for a direct measurement of DSBs caused by radiation. These two missions demonstrate the utility of using autonomous nanosatellites to address strategic knowledge gaps in the push to once again extend manned spaceflight beyond LEO.

Padgen, Mike↗

NASA NTRS2016

MEMS Reaction Control and Maneuvering for Picosat Beyond LEO

The MEMS Reaction Control and Maneuvering for Picosat Beyond LEO project will further develop a multi-functional small satellite technology for low-power attitude control, or orientation, of picosatellites beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). The Film-Evaporation MEMS Tunable Array (FEMTA) concept initially developed in 2013, is a thermal valving system which utilizes capillary forces in a microchannel to offset internal pressures in a bulk fluid. The local vapor pressure is increased by resistive film heating until it exceeds meniscus strength in a nozzle which induces vacuum boiling and provides a stagnation pressure equal to vapor pressure at that point which is used for propulsion. Interplanetary CubeSats can utilize FEMTA for high slew rate attitude corrections in addition to desaturating reaction wheels. The FEMTA in cooling mode can be used for thermal control during high-power communication events, which are likely to accompany the attitude correction. Current small satellite propulsion options are limited to orbit correction whereas picosatellites are lacking attitude control thrusters. The available attitude control systems are either quickly saturated reaction wheels or movable high drag surfaces with long response times.

Low-power attitude control↗

NASA NTRS2014

Model-Based GN and C Simulation and Flight Software Development for Orion Missions beyond LEO

For Orion missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), the Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GN&C) system is being developed using a model-based approach for simulation and flight software. Lessons learned from the development of GN&C algorithms and flight software for the Orion Exploration Flight Test One (EFT-1) vehicle have been applied to the development of further capabilities for Orion GN&C beyond EFT-1. Continuing the use of a Model-Based Development (MBD) approach with the Matlab®/Simulink® tool suite, the process for GN&C development and analysis has been largely improved. Furthermore, a model-based simulation environment in Simulink, rather than an external C-based simulation, greatly eases the process for development of flight algorithms. The benefits seen by employing lessons learned from EFT-1 are described, as well as the approach for implementing additional MBD techniques. Also detailed are the key enablers for improvements to the MBD process, including enhanced configuration management techniques for model-based software systems, automated code and artifact generation, and automated testing and integration.

Odegard, Ryan↗

NASA NTRS2010

Human Exploration Beyond LEO by the End of the Decade: Designs for Long-Duration "Gateway" Habitats

For the past few years, designs have been developed that are intended to demonstrate that a long-duration habitation system beyond LEO is plausible within several years. Here we summarize a pair of designs with the overriding goal of development and operation beyond LEO before the end of the decade that also build upon experiments and lessons learned from ISS. Both concepts here have the goal of an expandable long-duration habitat at Earth- Moon L1 and/or L2. Both options require subsequent launches for the astronauts. If a heavy-lift launch vehicle is available this decade, an expandable 30.5 mt habitat and departure-stage propulsion system may be launched to E-M L1,2 in a single launch and will offer 575 cubic meter (roughly half the habitable volume of ISS) If existing (or near-future) EELVs are the available launch vehicles this decade, a 16 mt, 170 cubic meter design that uses a pair of launches of Delta IV H and LEO rendezvous/fuel transfer to reach E-M L1,2.

Thronson, Harley↗

NASA NTRS2023

Space Biology Beyond LEO Instrumentation & Science Series Science Working Group 2022 Annual Report

Humans are poised to explore deep space: the realm of space beyond Earth's orbit. NASA will soon send humans back to the Moon with the Artemis program, and is developing programs to support crewed missions to Mars. Human exploration of such new environments demands fundamental research that can provide the knowledge necessary to ensure the safety of explorers and aid in the development of a sustainable presence in space. Accordingly, the Agency's Moon to Mars objectives1 include three goals in the area of Human Biological Sciences (HBS-1, -2, -3), with the aim to "Advance understanding of how biology responds to the environments of the Moon, Mars, and deep space to advance fundamental knowledge, support safe, productive human space missions and reduce risks for future exploration." Advancing this understanding is a task that is both complex-- comprising diverse organisms, processes, and methods-- and difficult-- because the very aspects of deep space that we strive to understand are the aspects that make it hard to conduct research in that environment. This report of the Beyond LEO Instrumentation & Science Series Science Working Group (BLISS-SWG) represents input from a group of scientists from diverse disciplines within the space biology research and engineering community on the nature of the science and technology that can be used to achieve those aims.

Space Biology↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Logistics Rates and Assumptions for Future Human Spaceflight Missions Beyond LEO

As NASA prepares for future human spaceflight missions with extended crew duration in destinations beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), the Agency has focused itself on understanding the drivers to sustainably support human life beyond Earth’s atmosphere. Future missions to deep space, the lunar surface, and eventually the Martian surface pose new challenges in ensuring the crew is sufficiently supplied with all necessary materials. To mitigate the risk of not delivering sufficient consumables and logistics for human spaceflight missions, NASA has examined past human space mission data and developed metabolic modeling to determine estimates for the crew consumption rates of fluids, solid consumables, and additional equipment needed. This paper is a compilation of guidelines, rates, and assumptions necessary to evaluate the logistics needs for future human exploration conceptual missions beyond LEO, providing a starting point and resource of information regarding usage rates and overall logistics supply planning for crewed exploration missions. Logistics represent all equipment and supplies not installed as part of the vehicle that are needed to support mission activities. Logistics can be further divided into specific categories, including consumables, maintenance items, spares, utilization, outfitting, as well as any packaging required. This paper will also provide use case examples of logistics needs to support human missions in deep space, including a conceptual lunar surface mission. The paper provides information necessary to calculate the mass and volume of known logistics for conceptual future human exploration missions beyond LEO. The assumptions in the paper are updated versions of previous assumptions made by the Agency and were derived from a number of sources, including International Space Station (ISS) historical usage and resupply rates, the Life Support Baseline Values and Assumptions Document (BVAD) 2022, Human Integration Design Handbook (HIDH) 2014, and data gathered from NASA human spaceflight programs and projects. The primary goal of the paper is to establish a set of consistent reference rates that multiple teams and groups can utilize to conduct logistics analysis and compare cases. This methodology is for initial estimates of conceptual human missions and does not take the place of detailed analysis for programs, nor does it provide requirements for programs.

Human Spaceflight↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Logistics Rates and Assumptions for Future Human Spaceflight Missions Beyond LEO

Human Spaceflight↗

NASA NTRS2001

Technology Development for Human Exploration Beyond LEO in the New Millennium IAA-13-3 Strategies and Plans for Human Mars Missions

As we look forward into the new millennium, the extension of human presence beyond Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) looms large in the plans of NASA. The Agency's Strategic Plan specifically calls out the need to identify and develop technologies for 100 and 1000-day class missions beyond LEO. To meet the challenge of these extended duration missions, it is important that we learn how to utilize the indigenous resources available to us on extraterrestrial bodies. This concept, known as In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) can greatly reduce the launch mass & cost of human missions while reducing the risk. These technologies may also pave the way for the commercial development of space. While no specific target beyond LEO is identified in NASA's Strategic Plan, mission architecture studies have been on-going for the Moon, Mars, Near-Earth Asteroids and Earth/Moon & Earth/Sun Libration Points. As a result of these studies, the NASA Office of Space Flight (Code M) through the Johnson and Kennedy Space Centers, is leading the effort to develop ISRU technologies and systems to meet the current and future needs of human missions beyond LEO and on to Mars. This effort also receives support from the NASA Office of Biological and Physical Research (Code U), the Office of Space Science (Code S), and the Office of Aerospace Technology (Code R). This paper will present unique developments in the area of fuel and oxidizer production, breathing air production, water production, C02 collection, separation of atmospheric gases, and gas liquefaction and storage. A technology overview will be provided for each topic along with the results achieved to date, future development plans, and the mission architectures that these technologies support.

Larson, William E.↗

NASA NTRS2011

HERRO: A Science-Oriented Strategy for Crewed Missions Beyond LEO

This paper presents an exploration strategy for human missions beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the Moon that combines the best features of human and robotic spaceflight. This "Human Exploration using Real-time Robotic Operations" (HERRO) strategy refrains from placing humans on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars in the near-term. Rather, it focuses on sending piloted spacecraft and crews into orbit around exploration targets of interest, such as Mars, and conducting astronaut exploration of the surfaces using telerobots and remotely controlled systems. By eliminating the significant communications delay with Earth due to the speed of light limit, teleoperation provides scientists real-time control of rovers and other sophisticated instruments, in effect giving them a "virtual presence" on planetary surfaces, and thus expanding the scientific return at these destinations. It also eliminates development of the numerous man-rated landers, ascent vehicles and surface systems that are required to land humans on planetary surfaces. The propulsive requirements to travel from LEO to many destinations with shallow gravity-wells in the inner solar system are quite similar. Thus, a single spacecraft design could perform a variety of missions, including orbit-based surface exploration of the Moon, Mars and Venus, and rendezvous with Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs), as well as Phobos and Deimos. Although HERRO bypasses many of the initial steps that have been historically associated with human space exploration, it opens the door to many new destinations that are candidates for future resource utilization and settlement. HERRO is a first step that takes humans to exciting destinations beyond LEO, while expanding the ability to conduct science within the inner solar system.

Schmidt, George R.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Human Operations Beyond LEO by the End of the Decade: An Affordable Near-Term "Stepping Stone"

For more than a decade, several teams have assessed designs for a long-duration free-space human habitat beyond low-Earth orbit (LEO), building upon years of hard-won experience with the International Space Station (ISS). These systems would enable multiple achievements for science and human space flight. Most were intended to be deployed using available or near-future capabilities within about a decade after funding begins and serve as the first major human "stepping stone" beyond LEO. Last year, Thronson and Talay summarized work up to that time on expandable or inflatable concepts for deployment at an Earth-Moon (E-M) L1 or L2 location. Here we summarize our team's more recent work both on a long-duration human habitat that could be deployed beyond LEO within a decade and on the priority goals that such a habitat might accomplish. Particulars of this and other concepts for human operations in cis-lunar space are posted on the web and will be presented at professional conferences, and detailed in future publications by our group.

Thronson, Harley↗

NASA NTRS2019

How Much Testing is Needed to Manage Supportability Risks for Beyond-LEO Missions?

Supportability will be a significantly greater driver of cost and risk for future deep-space crewed missions than it has been in the past. Spares requirements and maintenance risk mitigation in particular present an unprecedented challenge for missions beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO), since, for the first time in human spaceflight history, crews will be weeks or months away from resupply or a safe return to Earth in the event of an abort. Under these conditions, failure rates are a critical parameter that must be well-understood in order to manage logistics and risk effectively. However, failure rates cannot be measured directly, and can only be estimated based on past experience and test results. Previous research has shown that International Space Station (ISS) operational experience has provided significant benefits to future missions by reducing uncertainty and improving accuracy in failure rate estimates, resulting in significant reductions in mass and risk for beyond-LEO missions. This paper updates and expands on that research and quantifies the potential value of continued testing for future mission supportability. Frequentist and Bayesian models for evaluating, validating, and updating failure rate estimates are described, and are combined with supportability models to examine potential impacts of additional operating experience for future missions in terms of logistics mass reduction. The implications of these results for technology development, system design, and program planning are discussed along with lessons learned and recommendations for future system development. In the end, there is no simple answer to the question of how much testing is required, but the models described in this paper provide a way to evaluate the potential impacts of testing in order to inform test planning.

Andrew C Owens↗

NASA NTRS2013

Exploration Atmospheres for Beyond-LEO Human Exploration Missions

Atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentration of human-occupied space vehicles and habitats are an important life support parameter. The atmosphere is critical in terms of not only safety but also in terms of maximizing human capabilities at the point of scientific discovery. Human exploration missions beyond low earth orbit (LEO) will include extravehicular activity (EVA). EVAs are carried out in low pressure (4.3 psi/29.6 kilopascals) space suits running at 100 percent oxygen. New suits currently in development will be capable of running at a range of pressures between approximately 8.2 psi/56.5 kilopascals and 4.3 psi/29.6 kilopascals. In order to carry out high-frequency EVA phases of a mission safely and more efficiently, it is advantageous to have cabin or vehicle atmospheres at lower total pressure and higher oxygen concentrations. This allows for much reduced pre-breathe times for a fixed risk of decompression sickness and thus more efficient EVAs. The recommended oxygen concentration is 32% and represents a trade with respect to controlling the risk of decompression sickness and risk of fire. Work carried out by NASA in 2006 and continued in 2012 established an atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentration to optimize EVA. This paper will review previous work and describe current recommendations for beyond-LEO human exploration missions.

Henninger, Donald, L.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Stepping Beyond LEO

This slide presentation reviews several mission scenarios designed to take human spaceflight to points beyond low Earth Orbit (LEO). The presentation reviews future lunar missions, missions to near-earth asteroids, and missions to Mars. The use of solar electric propulsion (SEP) is involved in the mission to the asteroids and the martian mission scenarios. The technologies that are critical to these missions are reviewed.

Connolly, John F.↗

NASA NTRS2019

New Frontiers in Food Production Beyond LEO

New technologies will be needed as mankind moves towards exploration of cislunar space, the Moon and Mars. Although many advances in our understanding of the effects of spaceflight on plant growth have been achieved in the last 40 years, spaceflight plant growth systems have been primarily designed to support space biology studies. Recently, the need for a sustainable and robust food system for future missions beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO) has identified gaps in current technologies for food production. The goal is to develop safe and sustainable food production systems with reduced resupply mass and crew time compared to current systems.

Monje Mejia, Oscar A.↗

NASA NTRS2019

International Space Station Spacecraft Charging Hazards: Hazard Identification, Management, and Control Methodologies, with Possible Applications to Human Spaceflight Beyond LEO

In this paper, we present an overview of how the International Space Station (ISS) safety engineering methodology directed to controlling extravehicular activity (EVA) crew electrical shock hazards, caused by ISS spacecraft charging, has evolved over the past 25+ years. Long-term measurements of ISS charging severity and frequency-of-occurrence, combined with detailed probabilistic analysis of EVA electric shock- circuit completion, led to a change in hazard control methodology. The requirement for two-fault tolerant EVA shock hazard control during all EVAs was replaced with a less operationally burdensome and risky EVA shock hazard detection and warning process. The applicability of event probability-based detection-and- warning processes to human spaceflight charging hazard control beyond low-earth orbit (LEO) is also considered.

Koontz, Steve↗

NASA NTRS2021

Space Biology Beyond LEO Instrumentation & Science Series - Science Working Group 2021 Annual Report

Human space exploration was never intended to stop within low Earth orbit (LEO). Although nearly all of biological research in space has taken place in LEO, on the Space Shuttle, International Space Station (ISS), and free-flyer CubeSat missions, NASA's recent shift in emphasis toward human exploration of the Moon and ultimately Mars necessitates a shift in the focus of its research in the biological sciences [1]. Specifically, in 2022 and beyond, the Division of Biological and Physical Sciences seeks to pivot toward a focus on Thriving In DEep Space (TIDES), furthering the fundamental research necessary for understanding risks and mitigation strategies for deep-space stressors on human crew, plants, and their microbiomes. This effort entails both research on model organisms to elucidate the molecular processes underlying the biological consequences of deep-space exposure, and research on the organisms that will be necessary companions to sustain life and facilitate resource utilization in long-duration missions.

R Craig Everroad↗

NASA NTRS2019

New Technologies for Enabling Food Production Beyond LEO

NASA has identified the need for robust and sustainable ‘Pick-and-Eat’ systems for supplementing crew diets with fresh leafy green crops in near-term LEO (Low Earth Orbit), cislunar, and lunar missions. Spaceflight plant growth systems have been primarily designed for conducting space biology studies, but these systems are not optimal for sustained food production. Improved water and nutrient delivery subsystems that do not use bulky and non-reusable media are needed for decreasing the mass of the food production system. Autonomous technologies for monitoring plant health and food safety are needed for ensuring that the food produced is suitable supplementing crew diets with fresh, nutritious salad crops. Improved plant imaging techniques used for high-throughput phenotyping can be leveraged for monitoring plant health. Near-real-time measurements of the microbial ecology of food production systems are needed for assessing food safety. Furthermore, newly identified plant species and cultivars with improved growth habits and contents of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals when grown in spaceflight environmental conditions are needed. These improvements in food production technologies will enable the design of sustainable life support systems for manned exploration missions beyond Low Earth Orbit.

Monje Mejia, Oscar A.↗