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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Nuclear Data Sheets for A=38☆

All available experimental data of nuclear structure and decay are evaluated for the known nuclides of mass 38 (Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar, K, Ca, Sc, Ti). Detailed results of this evaluation are presented with the best values recommended for level energies, half-lives, γ-ray energies and intensities, decay properties (energies, intensities and placement of radiations), and other spectroscopic information. The {sup 38}Ar nuclide remains as the most extensively studied via various reactions and decays; no excited states are known in {sup 38}Al except for that an isomeric state is tentatively proposed from a recent β-decay measurement (2015St14); the {sup 38}Sc and {sup 38}Ti nuclides remain unidentified, with no experimental references reported for {sup 38}Sc and with a measurement of fragmentation cross sections reported for {sup 38}Ti but finding no evidence of its presence (1996Bl21). This work supersedes the earlier full evaluation of A=38 by J.A. Cameron and B. Singh (2008Ca01).

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Sensitivity to Thermonuclear Reaction Rates in Modeling the Abundance Anomalies of NGC 2419

Abundance anomalies in globular clusters provide strong evidence for multiple stellar populations within each cluster. These populations are usually interpreted as distinct generations, with the currently observed second-generation stars having formed in part from the ejecta of massive, first-generation “polluter” stars, giving rise to the anomalous abundance patterns. The precise nature of the polluters and their enrichment mechanism are still unclear. Even so, the chemical abundances measured in second-generation stars within the globular cluster NGC 2419 provide insight into this puzzling process. Previous work used Monte Carlo nuclear reaction network calculations to constrain the temperature–density conditions that could reproduce the observed abundances, thereby placing robust limits on the origins of the polluter material. The effect of individual reaction rates on these conditions has not been studied, however. Thus, we perform an exhaustive sensitivity study on the nuclear physics input to determine which reactions have the greatest impact on these predictions. We find that the {sup 30}Si(p,γ){sup 31}P, {sup 37}Ar(p,γ){sup 38}K, {sup 38}Ar(p,γ){sup 39}K, and {sup 39}K(p,γ){sup 40}Ca reactions are all critical in determining the temperature–density conditions, and ultimately, the origins of the polluter material. We conclude with recommendations for future experiments.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evolution of shell gaps in the neutron-poor calcium region from invariant-mass spectroscopy of 37,38 Sc, 35 Ca, 34 K

A fast secondary beam of 37 Ca impinged on a 9 Be target resulting in a set of reactions populating proton-rich nuclei including 35 Ca and the first observations of 37,38 Sc and 34 K. Invariant-mass spectroscopy, used to reconstruct proton decays for these nuclei, yielded three new ground-state masses and information on their low-lying structures. The newly measured mass excesses are: ΔM( 37 Sc) = 3500(410) keV, ΔM( 38 Sc) = –4656(14) keV, and ΔM( 34 K) = –1487(17) keV. These nuclei straddle the well-known Z = 20 shell closure as well as the N = 16 subshell closure. Furthermore, trends in separation energies help elucidate how nuclear structure evolves showing a fading of the Z = 20 shell gap for N ≥ 18 and indications of a N = 16 subshell gap.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Laccase-Assisted Grafting of Acrylic Acid onto Lignin for its Recovery from Wastewater

The acrylic acid (AA) in the wastewater from paint manufacturing could be recovered by grafting to lignosulfonate in the presence of laccase and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP). The low concentration of t-BHP did not inhibit the laccase activity, but improved the radical formation on lignin by laccase reaction, then initiated AA polymerization on lignin. The results showed laccase took a significant role for AA grafting to lignin. 94 % of AA could be polymerized on lignin by laccase/t-BHP, while only 32 % of AA was grafted on lignin with the same condition without laccase. The ratio of lignin to acrylic acid also affected AA recovery, and higher concentration of acrylic acid led to high recovery rate of AA. In this reaction system, the suitable range of temperature was 30–40 °C for the chemo-enzymatic reaction. The AA grafted on lignin could be precipitated by calcium ion and recovered.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Synchrotron fluorescence imaging of individual mouse beta-cells reveals changes in zinc, calcium, and iron in a model of low-grade inflammation

Pancreatic beta-cells synthesize and secrete insulin maintaining an organism's energy homeostasis. In humans, beta-cell dysfunction and death contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Although the causes of beta-cell dysfunction are complex, obesity-induced low-grade systemic inflammation plays a role. For example, obese individuals exhibiting increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1beta have a higher risk of beta-cell dysfunction and T2D. Interestingly, obesity-induced inflammation changes the expression of several cellular metal regulating genes, prompting this study to examine changes in the beta-cell metallome after exposure to proinflammatory-cytokines. Here, primary mouse beta-cells were exposed to a combination of IL-6 and IL-1beta for 48 hours, were chemically fixed and imaged by synchrotron X-ray fluorescent microscopy. Quantitative analysis showed a surprising 2.4-fold decrease in the mean total cellular content of zinc from 158 ± 57.7 femtograms (fg) to 65.7 ± 29.7 fg; calcium decreased from 216 ± 67.4 to 154.3 ± 68.7 fg (control vs. cytokines, respectively). The mean total cellular iron content slightly increased from 30.4 ± 12.2 to 47.2 ± 36.4 fg after cytokine treatment; a sub-population of cells (38%) exhibited larger increases of iron density. Changes in the subcellular distributions of zinc and calcium were observed after cytokine exposure. Beta-cells contained numerous iron puncta that accumulated still more iron after exposure to cytokines. These findings provide evidence that exposure to low levels of cytokines is sufficient to cause changes in the total cellular content and/or subcellular distribution of several metals known to be critical for normal beta-cell function.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1992

Modification by food of the calcium absorbability and physicochemical effects of calcium citrate

The food-calcium (Ca) interaction was examined in 12 healthy women (mean age 38 years) maintained on a constant metabolic diet. They underwent three phases of study, comprised of control (no Ca), Ca citrate (1 g Ca/day) during meals, and Ca citrate separately from meals. Each phase was 7 days in length and two 24-hour urine samples were collected on days 6 and 7. The rise from the control phase in urinary Ca was slightly more prominent when Ca citrate was given with meals than without (68 and 62%, respectively). The fall in urinary phosphorus was equivalent at about 25% between Ca citrate phases. The rise in urinary citrate and pH and the decline in urinary ammonium were more prominent when Ca citrate was given with meals; however, the changes were small or nonsignificant. The urinary saturation of Ca oxalate, brushite or monosodium urate did not differ between the two Ca citrate phases. There was a nonsignificant rise in serum iron during Ca citrate phases. The results suggest that: 1) dissolution and absorption of Ca citrate might be slightly greater when given with food than without; 2) that the ability of Ca citrate to attenuate crystallization of stone-forming Ca salts in urine is not modified by food; and 3) that Ca citrate may not impair iron absorption from food.

Non-NASA Center↗
DOE OSTI2020

Estimation of Sorption Behavior of Europium to Calcium Silicate Hydrate by Thermal Analysis - 20172

High-level radioactive waste generated from reprocessing processes will be disposed in a geological disposal that is deep underground. Calcium silicate hydrate is formed as a secondary mineral in the repository via the reaction of calcium ions leaching from the cement and the silicic acid dissolved from the host rocks. In this study, the sorption behavior of europium, which is also known as a chemical analog of americium, on calcium silicate hydrate was examined. The solid phase was analyzed via thermogravimetry- differential thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and fluorescence lifetime analysis. To understand the behavior of calcium silicate hydrate under conditions saturated with groundwater, the study samples were analyzed using the above methods, except for deferential scanning calorimetry, without a drying process. The results of the differential scanning calorimetry analyses showed that the temperatures for the endothermic peaks of calcium silicate hydrate for the lower Ca/Si ratios were larger than those for the higher Ca/Si ratios for coexistent conditions of europium ions. Hence, the relationships of the temperatures of the endothermic peaks and the Ca/Si ratios were reversed by the addition of europium ions. These study results suggest that calcium silicate hydrate can immobilize europium ions, thus preventing the production of colloidal forms. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Studies on Workability of Geopolymer Solidification - 18171

In Japan, intermediate-level radioactive waste, such as spent resin, is solidified and set in sealed containers without venting. To reduce the amount of hydrogen generated due to water radiolysis in stored intermediate-level waste, geopolymer solidification has been studied. Geopolymer solidification is an excellent method for conditioning intermediate-level waste from the viewpoint of its high thermal stability and low processing cost. However, it has a problem that the apparent viscosity increases drastically a few minutes after the onset of setting. This may cause some trouble in the process of pouring the geopolymer into drums and mixing it with waste. In this study, in order to control the workability of a geopolymer mixture, we investigated the effects of the compounding ratio and the kinds of chemical agents used. We confirmed that the geopolymer reaction was slowed down by reducing the amount of calcium and adding boron. The uniaxial compressive strength of the geopolymer was 3-80 MPa. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Sorption Behavior of Iodate Ions on Calcium Silicate Hydrate under a High Saline Condition - 18176

The sorption behavior of iodate ions on calcium-silicate hydrate (CSH) gel under high saline condition was examined by monitoring the concentrations of iodate ions and chloride ions using ion chromatography and Raman spectroscopy, without drying process. In the sorption experiments, a stable isotope I-127 was used as an alternative of I-129 which is radioactive one. Each sample was synthesized with mixing CaO powder, SiO{sub 2} as fumed silica and NaCl solution. Ca/Si molar ratios of CSH gel were set to 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and 1.6 (add 0.2, 0.6, 1.0 and 1.4 only L/S = 20), and the concentration of NaCl solution was set to 0 M or 0.6 M for simulating the condition of fresh or saline groundwater. The liquid/solid (L/S) ratios of CSH gel were set to 10, 15 and 20, and the total weight of solid phase was 1.5 g. At the same time, NaIO{sub 3} solution was added to the sample in order to adjust its concentration to 1.0 mM, 0.67 mM and 0.5 mM for each L/S ratios. The synthesis procedure for all samples was conducted in a glove bag filled with nitrogen gas. The curing period was 7, 14, 30, and 60 days at a room temperature (298 K) with shaking at 120 strokes/min. As a results, the concentration of iodate ions in the liquid phase decreased for all samples under experimental conditions. Besides, the sorption behavior of iodate ions were hardly changed by the concentration of NaCl. That is, iodate ions migrated to solid phase in spite of the high concentration of NaCl. The distribution coefficients, Kd, increased as Ca/Si ratio increased, and hardly depended on NaCl concentration. The results of Raman analysis shows that the structure of CSH gel was almost not changed with or without NaCl from the viewpoint of the silicate chain under this condition. These results suggest that a sorption process except for the electrostatic process such as an ion exchange and a complexation exists between CSH gel and iodate ions. Besides, CSH gel might be able to contribute the retardation for the migration of iodate ions without changing its structure, even if the disposal environment are saturated by a high saline groundwater. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Excited states of Ca 39 and their significance in nova nucleosynthesis

Background: We report that discrepancies exist between the observed abundances of argon and calcium in oxygen-neon nova ejecta and those predicted by nova models. An improved characterization of the 38 K(p,γ) 39 Ca reaction rate over the nova temperature regime (~ 0.1-0.4 GK), and thus the nuclear structure of 39 Ca above the proton threshold (5770.92(63) keV), is necessary to resolve these contradictions. Purpose: The present study was performed to search for low-spin proton resonances in the 38 K + p system, and to improve the uncertainties in energies of the known astrophysically significant proton resonances in 39 Ca. Methods: The level structure of 39 Ca was investigated via high-resolution charged-particle spectroscopy with an Enge split-pole spectrograph using the 40 Ca( 3 He, α) 39 Ca reaction. Differential cross sections were measured over 6 laboratory angles at 21 MeV. Distorted-wave Born approximation calculations were performed to constrain the spin-parity assignments of observed levels with special attention to those significant in determination of the 38 K(p,γ) 39 Ca reaction rate over the nova temperature regime. Results: The resonance energies corresponding to two out of three astrophysically important states at 6154(5) and 6472.2(24) keV are measured with better precision than previous charged-particle spectroscopy measurements. A tentatively new state is discovered at 5908(3) keV. The spin-parity assignments of a few of the astrophysically important resonances are determined. Conclusions: Lastly, the present 38 K(p,γ) 39 Ca upper limit thermonuclear reaction rate at 0.1-0.4 GK is higher than that determined in [Physical Review C 97 (2018) 025802] by at most a factor of 1.4 at 0.1 GK.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Understanding Radionuclide Interactions with Cementitious Materials for Radioactive Waste Management - 18298

In the UK, ILW is currently managed using cementitious encapsulation in Portland cement (PC)-based grouts. The long-term behaviour of radionuclides in ILW cementitious waste-forms under varying local conditions of extended interim storage and geological disposal is not well understood and the behaviour of cement minerals in the retention of various radionuclides is poorly constrained. This work focuses on the Ca-Si-[Al,Mg,S] mineral system and how this may evolve with the introduction of radionuclides into the system. Here, we discuss the experimental program aimed at underpinning the uptake and retention mechanisms of a range of key radionuclides (U, Tc, Ce/Pu), with selected cement phases: calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), hydrotalcite (Mg{sub 6}Al{sub 2}CO{sub 3}(OH)16.4H{sub 2}O) and ettringite (Ca{sub 6}(Al{sub 2}O{sub 6})(SO{sub 4}){sub 3}.32H{sub 2}O). Described here is the syntheses of C-S-H and radionuclide incorporation experiments performed on this phase. Further to this, thermodynamic geochemical modelling has been adopted to explore the Ca-Si-U mineral system, aimed at identifying the mineral phases likely to form on contact of C-S-H phases with aqueous uranium, as a function of pH. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2005

The effect of purified compared with nonpurified diet on bone changes induced by hindlimb suspension of female rats

The purpose of this study was to compare the bone changes induced by unloading in rats fed different diets, because space flight studies use a semipurified diet, whereas space flight simulation studies typically use nonpurified diets. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a purified American Institute of Nutrition (AIN) 93G diet or a standard nonpurified diet and kept ambulatory or subjected to unloading by hindlimb suspension (HLS) for 38 days. Bone mineral content (BMC), mechanical strength, and factors related to the diet that affect bone (i.e., urinary calcium excretion, estradiol, and corticosterone) were measured. Average food intakes (grams per day) differed for diets, but caloric intake (kilocalories per day) and the final body masses of treatment groups were similar. The HLS-induced decrease in femoral BMC was not statistically different for rats fed a nonpurified diet (-8.6%) compared with a purified AIN-93G diet (-11.4%). The HLS-induced decrease in femoral mechanical strength was not statistically different for rats fed a nonpurified diet (-24%) compared with a purified AIN-93G diet (-31%). However, bone lengths were decreased (P < 0.05) in rats fed a nonpurified diet compared with a purified diet. Plasma estradiol levels were lower (P < 0.05) in the HLS/AIN-93G group but similar in the HLS and ambulatory rats fed a nonpurified diet. Plasma estradiol was related to femoral BMC (r = 0.85, P < 0.01). Urinary calcium excretion was higher (P < 0.05) in rats fed a nonpurified diet than those fed a purified AIN-93G diet, which is consistent with the higher level of calcium in the nonpurified diet. Urinary corticosterone levels were higher (P < 0.05) in rats fed a nonpurified diet than rats fed the AIN-93G diet. Although the osteopenia induced by unloading was similar in both diet groups, there were differences in longitudinal bone growth, calcium excretion, plasma estradiol levels, and urinary corticosterone levels. Results indicate that the type of standard diet used is an important factor to consider when measuring bone end points.

Bone and Bones/pathology↗
DOE OSTI2020

Biosorption of Uranium by Bone Meal

The treatment of aqueous solution waste containing organic compounds and radionuclides has always been a great concern since the processes available are usually expensive and unfeasible for the low volume of radioactive liquid waste recovered. In view of a more efficient and low cost treatment, biosorption-based technologies for the removal of this hazardous radionuclides, heavy metals, and organic substances from contaminated matrices have been studied as an alternative process. In this context, bone meal is the material of choice, and contains calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite. Previous studies with hydroxyapatite showed that this material is efficient in removing heavy metals from polluted soils due to its adsorbing ability. In this context, uranium biosorption capacity by using bone meal was evaluated by different experimental conditions. This study aims at analyzing the capacity of bone meal to remove uranium from aqueous solution through biosorption process, considering that this nuclide is radiotoxic and may cause serious environmental problems and risks to human life if not correctly disposed. The biosorption capacity of U by bone meal was evaluated under different experimental conditions. The results suggested that adsorption with this material can be applied in the treatment of aqueous solutions as a low-cost and highly efficient alternative to remove U. Therefore, we believe that our results are useful for other investigators dealing with similar problems. Further work is required to evaluate this material as a potential adsorbent concerning the treatment of liquid organic radioactive waste containing uranium. Next studies are crucial to ascertain the biosorption efficiency, by analyzing other variables, such as adsorbent dosage, pH and temperature.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2004

The Effect of Feeding Purified versus Chow Diet on Bone Changes Produced by Hindlimb Suspension of Female Rats

Spaceflight simulation studies use chow diets while spaceflight studies use a semi-purified &et. To determine whether the differences in these diets would affect the changes in unweighted bone, we compared the effects of purified vs chow diet on bone parameters, urinary calcium, plasma estradiol, and urinary corticosterone (CORT) in sexually mature female Sprague-Dawley rats. Rats fed purified AIN-93G or chow diet were kept ambulatory (AMB) or subjected to a spaceflight simulation model of unweighted hindlimbs (HLS) for 38 days. Body mass of treatment groups was similar although food intake and caloric density of the diets differed. Both HLS diet groups showed similar decreases in bone mineral content and mechanical strength in unweighted femurs compared to AMB (p<0.05). However, femur length was lower (p<0.05) in the chow-fed than AIN-93G fed groups. Urinary calcium excretion was greater in chow than AIN-93G fed rats, consistent with the higher level of calcium in the diet. Plasma estradiol was lower in HLS than in AMB fed AIN-93G, but similar in HLS and AMB chow fed groups. Femur mineral content was related to plasma estradiol (r(sup 2) =0.91, p<0.00l). Urinary CORT excretion was increased during initial HLS and elevated in HLS/chow-fed rats. Diets did not appear to affect the osteopenia induced by unweighting, but effects on bone growth, calcium excretion, plasma estradiol and urinary CORT do not support the view that these diets can by used interchangeably in bone studies.

Tou, Janet↗
DOE OSTI2020

Influence of Borate on Sorption of Strontium and Barium to Calcium Silicate Hydrate - 20148

Radioactive waste with the decommissioning process at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP), contains borate with relatively high concentration. As with general low-level wastes, such waste is also assumed the solidification with cementitious materials which calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is one of the main components. In this study, the sorption behavior of strontium (Sr) ions and barium (Ba) ions to C-S-H in the presence of borate was examined by the sorption experiments without drying process. In the sorption experiments, C-S-H was synthesized by the mixture of calcium oxide, fumed silica and a solution with setting the Ca/Si molar ratios to 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 and 1.6. The total amount of a solid phase was 1.5 g, and the total volume of the solution containing borate and adsorbed ions (Sr or Ba) was 30 mL. The concentration of borate was set to 0 M or 0.6 M and the sodium/boron (Na/B) ratios was set to 0.2 or 1.0 by mixing boric acid and sodium hydroxide. The concentration of Sr ions or Ba ions was adjusted to 1 mM. The sorption period was set to 7 days. In the results, the sorption ratios of Sr ions and Ba ions for C-S-H exceeded 80% under all experimental conditions, although the sorption competition of cations with Na ions and the inhibition of the C-S-H formation with generating borate compounds observed by Raman spectroscopy might slightly reduce the sorption of them. These suggest that cationic radionuclides will be immobilized by C-S-H contained in the cements even in the presence of borate. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Direct measurement of astrophysically important resonances in K 38 ( p , γ ) Ca 39

Classical novae are cataclysmic nuclear explosions occurring when a white dwarf in a binary system accretes hydrogen-rich material from its companion star. Novae are partially responsible for the galactic synthesis of a variety of nuclides up to the calcium (A ~ 40) region of the nuclear chart. Although the structure and dynamics of novae are thought to be relatively well understood, the predicted abundances of elements near the nucleosynthesis endpoint, in particular Ar and Ca, appear to sometimes be in disagreement with astronomical observations of the spectra of nova ejecta.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2019

Risk of Distant Metastasis in Parathyroid Carcinoma and Its Effect on Survival: A Retrospective Review from a High-Volume Center

Background: Development of distant metastases (DM) is associated with markedly decreased survival in parathyroid carcinoma (PC). We sought to identify factors associated with development of DM and to quantify the effect that development of DM had on overall survival (OS). Methods: Patients with surgically resected local/regional PC treated or surveilled at a tertiary-referral cancer hospital from 1980 to 2017 were included. We assessed the association between biochemical and clinicopathologic factors (preoperative parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels, sex, race, age, preoperative serum calcium levels, serum calcium levels at 6 months postop, tumor size, and extent of resection) with the development of DM. We also assessed the effect of development of DM on OS. Results: Seventy-five patients with PC were assessed; 17 (22.7%) developed DM at a median follow-up of 77 months. The cumulative incidence of DM in the cohort was 20, 30, and 38% at 5, 10, and 20 years respectively. Tumor size > 3.2 cm based on recursive partitioning analysis was the only significant predictor for development of DM (hazard ratio (HR) = 3.51; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04–11.91; p = 0.04). Median OS for the entire cohort was 17 years compared with 40 months for the cohort who developed DM. The HR for death after distant metastasis was 9.6 (95% CI 4.2–22.3; p < 0.0001). Conclusions: Development of distant metastasis during surveillance is associated with decreased OS, including late recurrences. Primary tumor size should be considered in future interval surveillance and development of treatment algorithms.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
NASA NTRS2003

Advanced Sensor Systems for Biotelemetry

The present invention relates to telemetry-based sensing systems that continuously measures physical, chemical and biological parameters. More specifically, these sensing systems comprise a small, modular, low-power implantable biotelemetry system capable of continuously sensing physiological characteristics using implantable transmitters, a receiver, and a data acquisition system to analyze and record the transmitted signal over several months. The preferred embodiment is a preterm labor and fetal monitoring system. Key features of the invention include Pulse Interval Modulation (PIM) that is used to send temperature and pressure information out of the biological environment. The RF carrier frequency is 174-216 MHz and a pair of RF bursts (pulses) is transmitted at a frequency of about 1-2 Hz. The transmission range is 3 to 10 feet, depending on the position of the transmitter in the body and its biological environment. The entire transmitter is encapsulated in biocompatible silicone rubber. Power is supplied by on-board silver-oxide batteries. The average power consumption of the current design is less than 30 microW, which yields a lifetime of approximately 6 - 9 months. Chip-on-Board technology (COB) drastically reduces the size of the printed circuit board from 38 x 28 mm to 22 x 8 mm. Unpackaged dies are flip-chip bonded directly onto the printed circuit board, along with surface mount resistors and capacitors. The invention can monitor additional physiological parameters including, but not limited to, ECG, blood gases, glucose, and ions such as calcium, potassium, and sodium.

Hines, John W.↗